The Wonderful World of the Ladybird Book Artists

This year, the fascinating tale of the skilled artists who brought Ladybird books to life for over three decades was explored at The Wonderful World of the Ladybird Book Artists exhibition at the Victoria Art Gallery in Bath. The exhibition featured rare books, original artworks, and artefacts, demonstrating the role of the illustrators for Ladybird. The exhibition also looked into the collaborative work of these artists, focusing primarily on the company’s “golden years” between 1940 and 1975. 

The origins of Ladybird can be traced back to a printing business called Wills & Hepworth in Loughborough. At the turn of the 20th century, the company offered bookbinding services and sold many products, including artists’ materials, fancy goods, and ladies’ handbags. The outbreak of World War One dealt a heavy blow to their business, forcing them to explore new opportunities. To stay financially afloat, they began to publish affordable children’s books, though these differ vastly from the Ladybird books known today. The books were large and poorly printed on cheap paper, but they helped keep the print works running. 

In 1940, Wills & Hepworth advertised a new type of children’s book – the first classic Ladybird: Bunnkin’s Picnic Party, illustrated (and originally written) by Angusine Macgregor (1881-1961). Due to wartime shortages, a complete mini-book was created using just one sheet of carefully laid-out paper, which remained the blueprint for Ladybird books for the next four decades.

Angusine Macgregor had established herself as an illustrator of children’s picture books for various publishers before she joined Ladybird. Having trained at Birmingham Municipal School of Art, Macgregor had a unique illustration style. Her work at Ladybird included titles like Mrs Bunny’s Refugee, Bobbity Flop and The Adventures of Silver Suit. 

Initially, Ladybird commissioned Macgregor to write and illustrate the stories, but her rhymes did not receive the same level of appreciation as her illustrations. New authors later rewrote some of the books. Despite this, some titles from her Animal Rhyming series of the 1940s remained in print for over 40 years.

In the 1940s, Ladybird books targeted preschool children and comprised fictional tales and rhymes. In the early 1950s, the company shifted its focus towards producing high-quality illustrated non-fictional books for the rapidly growing education market. The first subject chosen for this new venture was Nature. This radical change was driven by Douglas Keen (1913-2008), who believed Ladybird could produce books that catered to a broader audience range and diverse interests. The first book in the Nature series British Birds and their Nests was an immediate success, paving the way for more books on identifying trees, butterflies, birds, shells, rocks, and clouds. Books like Our Land in the Making demonstrated Britain’s rapidly changing post-war landscape, with the rise of suburban life and expansion of the road network. 

Ladybird was committed to ensuring the accuracy and quality of the books, so they carefully selected writers and artists who were renowned experts in their respective fields to produce the Nature books. Allen Seaby (1867-1953) loved Japanese-style colour woodblock printing, which features in British Birds and their Nests and A 2nd Book of British Birds and their Nests. Roland Green (1890-1972) created numerous bird studies in watercolours and oils, as did Charles Frederick Tunnicliffe (1901-79).

Ronald Lampitt (1906-88), a self-taught commercial illustrator from Worcester, began his career by producing work for Medici cards, Reader’s Digest, Look & Learn, the Whitbread calendar, railway posters, and numerous cover illustrations for the weekly magazine John Bull. Later, Lampitt contributed to Ladybird books, including Plants & How They Live, Our Land in the Making Books 1 and 2, Understanding Maps, Learning About Insects & Small Animals, What to Look for Inside a Church, and What to Look for Outside a Church. His artistic style featured wistful, nostalgic landscapes of sprawling views with elm trees, small lanes, and tiny figures going about their daily activities. Lampitt also created cityscapes and crowd scenes.

Ladybird began issuing approximately two history books a year, starting with Alfred the Great in 1956, and continuing until 1981. The History series became the largest of all Ladybird series with 50 different titles. The books mainly focused on men in history, primarily British leaders and explorers, reflecting the school curriculum of that time. Nevertheless, among the first books published were Florence Nightingale and Queen Elizabeth I. Lawrence du Garde Peach (1890-1974), a dramatist and radio personality, wrote all the books until the 1970s, and John Kenney (1911-72), an artist from Leicestershire, produced most of the illustrations. Later, Ladybird introduced another long series of books that focused on historical development rather than individuals. Called the Achievements series, it covered diverse topics such as ships, cars, newspapers, homes, costumes, printing, oil, and nuclear power. These books were popular with schools in the 1960s and 1970s, and students used them for school projects and homework assignments. Robert Ayton (1915-85), an artist who had previously worked for Eagle magazine, illustrated many of the books in this series.

John Kenney underwent training at Leicester College of Art before serving with the Army during World War Two, where he notably participated in the D-Day landings. Before joining Ladybird, he produced illustrations for the Thomas the Tank Engine series by Reverend Awdry between 1957 and 1962. During his time with Ladybird, Kenney contributed to 31 titles, including Tootles the Taxi and the History books. Eventually, Kenney retired due to ill health and was replaced by Roger Hall. 

At 15, Roger Hall (1914-2006) embarked on his career as an artist by painting publicity images for cinema displays. Being self-taught, he devoted his weekends to studying portraits in art galleries like the Tate and National Galleries. Eventually, Hall ventured into book illustrations, working with various publishers such as Pan, Corgi, and Mills & Boon. In 1955, he created the first-ever depiction of James Bond on a book cover – the paperback edition of Casino Royale. Hall joined Ladybird later in his career, taking over the History books from his predecessor, John Kenney. When Ladybird decided to update the History series books in the 1980s, Hall was frequently chosen to create the cover illustrations, even if other artists were responsible for the rest. Ladybird believed his painting style would appeal to children and parents and help sell the books.

Ladybird books gained popularity in schools across Britain during the 1960s, prompting the company to explore topics that interest older children. Consequently, a series of books was proposed to educate children about the world of work. The People at Work series debuted in 1962 with The Fireman and concluded with In a Big Store in 1973, comprising 20 books. John Berry, an artist with a talent for photo-realism and portraiture, was chosen to illustrate all the books. The series featured titles such as The Soldier, The Policeman, The Nurse, The Roadbuilders, and The Customs Officer.

John Berry (1920-2010) volunteered for the RAF at the start of World War Two. He was later selected as a war artist and travelled to the Middle East. Four of his paintings were later acquired by the Imperial War Museum. After the war, Berry produced society portraits and freelance advertising. In the 1950s, he designed an advertisement for Esso’s Tiger in Your Tank campaign, for which he also created the slogan. From the late 1950s to the 1980s, Berry found plenty of work with Ladybird due to his exceptional talent. He illustrated numerous travel books, including The Ladybird Book of London, and all 20 books in the People at Work series. 

Ladybird introduced a separate series of People at Work to emphasize the benefits of Public Services, including Gas, Electricity and Water. While women were more prominently featured in the books in the 1970s, the initial books emphasized the work of men. To offer a more detailed and technical introduction to specific topics, the How it Works series was launched in 1965, mainly illustrated by Bernard Robinson (1912-70). The series served as an introductory handbook to aspects of modern technology, including The Camera, The Rocket, The Hovercraft, and The Computer. Many engineering undergraduates reportedly wrote essays based on these books, and workplaces used them for basic training.

Ladybird occasionally published fairy tales and fantasy stories for preschool children. In 1964, the company decided to undertake an extensive series of beautifully illustrated fairy tales, including classics such as Cinderella, Three Little Pigs, and The Magic Porridge Pot. This series, aptly named Well-Loved Tales, became one of the most popular series Ladybird ever produced. Douglas Keen gave a previously published Ladybird book from 1959, Little Red Riding Hood and Goldilocks, originally illustrated by Harry Wingfield, to two artists, Eric Winter and Robert Lumley, to use as a model for the new book series. Winter and Lumley’s collaboration resulted in a colourful world filled with princesses in lovely dresses, frightening wolves, helpful elves, wise hens, and terrifying trolls. The text, written by Vera Southgate (1916-95), was just long enough to be read as a bedtime story and easy enough for young readers. 

Eric Winter (1905-81) mostly illustrated children’s comics and women’s magazines before joining Ladybird. One of his notable achievements was designing the iconic Abbey National Building Society logo in the 1950s, which the company used until 2003. Winter worked for Ladybird from 1960 and illustrated many titles in the Well-Loved Tales series, including Cinderella, Rapunzel, Puss in Boots, and Goldilocks.

Robert Lumley (1920-76) trained under the art director of Disney’s Bambi. In 1952, Lumley established Broad Oak Studies in Harfield Broad Oak, Essex, with his wife Sally, where he worked on illustration, animation, fine art, and design projects. From 1964 to 1974, Lumley contributed to several titles in Ladybird’s Well-Loved Tales series, including The Elves and the Shoemaker, The Three Little Pigs, The Gingerbread Boy, and The Enormous Turnip. He often used local residents and townscapes as models and settings for his illustrations.

The Key Words Reading Scheme, also known as the Peter and Jane series, was initially introduced in 1964. The reading scheme comprised 36 books, divided into 12 colour-coded levels, and taught children from their first words to confident reading. This scheme became Ladybird’s most significant commercial success. Douglas Keen enlisted the help of Harry Wingfield and Martin Aitchison, two of his most trusted illustrators, to depict the daily lives of Peter and Jane, along with their dog Pat. The project was a massive undertaking with 36 books, each containing 24 illustrations, produced within a tight deadline. On occasion, Robert Ayton, John Berry, and Frank Hampson assisted with the artwork. The reading scheme was a significant financial risk, but it quickly became popular, earning a place on school bookshelves throughout the country and teaching generations of children how to read. 

Harry Wingfield (1910-2002) began his career in advertising in 1930 when he started working for electrical manufacturers Crabtree in Birmingham. It was during this time that he first met Douglas Keen. Wingfield’s first commission for Ladybird was for the book Little Red Riding Hood, and from then on he became one of the most extensively employed Ladybird artists. From 1959 to 1980, he illustrated numerous series including Learning with Mother, collaborating with his wife Ethel, who was a teacher and early years specialist. Along with Martin Aitchison, he was the main illustrator for the Key Words Reading Scheme from the early 1960s.

Frank Hampson (1918-85) played a key role in the success of the groundbreaking Eagle magazine from 1950 to 1959, where he illustrated and initially wrote the Dan Dare strip. From 1964 to 1970, Hampson worked for Ladybird, where his work included Nursery Rhymes 1, 2 and 3; Kings and Queens of England; two books in the Key Words Reading Scheme, and The Stories of Our Christmas Customs.

Ladybird’s success saw a sharp rise from the 1950s to the 1970s, a time when the social landscape of Britain underwent significant changes. Until then, Ladybird artists, primarily white men, had relied on their own lives and the people around them – family and neighbours – as models for their illustrations. Following criticism from the press and schools, Ladybird decided to update the artwork for the Peter and Jane books, making changes to fashion, Jane’s role and increasing the representation of social diversity. In the 1970s, Ladybird introduced a shorter version of the Peter and Jane books, set in the Caribbean, where Ken and Joy became Ladybird’s first black main characters. Artist Martin Aitchison travelled to Trinidad, Jamaica, and the Bahamas to collect reference photographs. Known as the Sunstart scheme, Aitchinson fondly remembered it as some of his most satisfying work for Ladybird.

Martin Aitchison (1919-2016) trained at the Birmingham School of Art and the Slade School of Art, where he met his future wife Dorothy. Dorothy wrote some of the books for Ladybird, which included adaptations of traditional stories. During World War Two, Aitchison illustrated operating manuals for Vickers Aircraft. He also worked with Barnes Wallis and created visuals to help “sell” the idea of the bouncing bomb used in the Dambusters raid. Aitchison’s first book for Ladybird was A First Book of British Saints, but Douglas Keen initially rejected his artwork as “not right for us”. However, Aitchison went on to illustrate almost 100 different titles for Ladybird during his 30-year stint until his retirement in 1985. 

The exhibition at the Victoria Art Gallery stopped in the 1980s but that is not the end of Ladybird’s story. For instance, in November 2014, Ladybird signed up to the Let Books Be Books campaign and announced that it was “committed” to avoiding labelling books as “for girls” or “for boys” and would be removing such gender labelling in reprinted copies. In 2015, Ladybird announced that it would be publishing its first series of books for adults. The books, which parody the style and artwork of the company’s books for children, include the titles The Hangover, Mindfulness, Dating, and The Hipster.

In 2015, Ladybird celebrated its 100th anniversary. Today, Ladybird is part of the Penguin Random House publishing company and includes modern icons such as Topsy and Tim, Peppa Pig and In the Night Garden. The brand has expanded from picture books into a multi-platform experience with various computer apps. 

Whilst The Wonderful World of the Ladybird Book Artists is a nostalgic exhibition, Ladybird Books are not a thing of the past. New books are continually published, and the old ones are still loved by children and adults today. What began as a publishing company trying to stay afloat during the war years resulted in a worldwide success story. Many may regard these books as quintessentially British, but stories are also published in Swedish, Afrikaans, French, German, Dutch, Swedish, Norweigan, Danish, Finnish, Welsh, Scots Gaelic, Irish Gaelic, Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Malay, Zulu and even Esperanto. 

Unfortunately, The Wonderful World of the Ladybird Book Artists closed on 14th April 2024. They gallery’s new exhibition Toulouse-Lautrec and the Masters of Montmartre is open until 29th September 2024.

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The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula

Believed to be Caravaggio’s last painting, The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (1610) is on display at the National Gallery, London, until 21st July 2024. Displayed alongside Salome receives the Head of John the Baptist (1609-10), the mini-exhibition details Caravaggio’s attempted return to Rome, where a sudden fever caused his untimely death.

Caravaggio (1571-1610) depicts St Ursula’s martyrdom in a dark, crowded space. She is the only female in the painting, surrounded by male soldiers, one of whom has just fired an arrow into Ursula’s chest. The position of Ursula’s hands frames the bleeding wound while the other soldiers look on aghast. Amongst these men is a self-portrait of the artist, whose open mouth demonstrates his horror.

Saint Ursula is an unusual choice of subject, as she traditionally represents female empowerment. Caravaggio’s patron, Marcantonio Doria, commissioned the painting to honour his step-daughter Livia, a nun who took the name Sister Ursula.

Saint Ursula, whose name means “Little Bear”, was a Romano-British virgin. There is little to no factual information about Ursula, but a medieval legend claims she was the daughter of 4th-century King Dionotus of Dumnonia in southwest Britain. According to the story, Ursula set sail to Armorica (France) with 11,000 virginal handmaidens to join her future husband, the pagan governor Conan Meriadoc. During a storm, which sped up her journey, Ursula decided to make a pan-European pilgrimage before her wedding.

Ursula and her handmaidens headed to Rome, where she convinced the Pope and a bishop of Ravenna to join them. Their journey took them through modern-day Germany, where the nomadic Huns captured them. Their captors beheaded all 11,000 virgins and eventually, as depicted in Caravaggio’s painting, shot Ursula with an arrow.

Due to a lack of credibility, many historians and Christian theologians dismiss the existence of Saint Ursula. A similar story emerged in the 10th century, although the bride-to-be had the name Pinnosa. Towards the end of the century, another tale developed titled Passio Ursulae. This version named Ursula as the lead character, and Pinnosa was one of the 11,000 virgins.

Some parts of Passio Ursulae may have evolved from mistranslations. The 11,000 virgins are shortened to XI. M. V. When read as Roman numerals, this could mean 11 (XI) thousand (M) virgins (V). An alternative interpretation is 11 (XI) martyred (M) virgins (V). Another scholar suggested Ursula was an 11-year-old girl and that the virgins did not exist, whereas another theory records Ursula’s name as Undecimilla, which a monk misunderstood as the number 11,000.

The Basilica of St. Ursula in Cologne holds the alleged relics of Ursula and the virgins. Author Christina Quigley (b. 1963) describes these bones as a “veritable tsunami of ribs, shoulder blades, and femurs … arranged in zigzags and swirls and even in the shapes of Latin words.” The Goldene Kammer, a chapel belonging to the Basilica, contains sculptures of some of the women in the legend.

In 1572, Angela Merici (1474-1540), the foundress of the Angelines, established the Order of the Ursulines with Ursula as their patron saint. The nuns followed the Rule of Saint Augustine and spread to Canada, the USA and Australia. In the Catholic church, the feast of St Ursula is celebrated on 21st October in Spain and the Philippines.

There are also Anglican churches dedicated to Saint Ursula in Europe. Llangwyryfon in Wales, which means “Church of the Virgins”, has the only church in the UK bearing Ursula’s name. Some scholars believe Ursula came from that area. Before 1565, the Church of St Mary, St Ursula and her 11,000 Virgins, also known as St Mary Axe, stood at the east end of London. Allegedly, the church owned the axe used to kill the 11,000 virgins. Today, the area is known as St Mary Axe.

Other places named in Ursula’s honour include the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean. Christopher Colombus (1451-1506) gave them the name Santa Úrsula y las Once Mil Vírgenes (Saint Ursula and the 11,000 Virgins) when he sailed past in 1493. The group of islands became known as las Vírgenes (the Virgins) for short. Similarly, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) named the southeastern tip of Argentina Cape Virgenes, and João Álvares Fagundes (1460-1522) called an island near Canada after the 11,000 virgins. The latter is known as Saint Pierre and Miquelon today.

Although Saint Ursula is not a typical choice to depict in art, Caravaggio is not the only artist to paint her martyrdom. Catherine of Bologna (1413-63), the patron saint of artists, is credited with painting two images of Saint Ursula. Hans Memling (1430-94) and Bernardo Cavallino (1616-56) also depicted the saint (pictures 3 and 5 in this post).

To see Caravaggio’s Martyrdom of Saint Ursula before it returns to the Gallerie d’Italia Naples, visit the National Gallery before 21st July 2024. Entry is free but a timed ticket must be booked to enter the building.

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Fashion, Identity, Painting

Renowned for his captivating portrait paintings, Tate Britain’s exhibition Sargent and Fashion explores the acclaimed works of John Singer Sargent, delving into his unique approach to portraying his subjects. Sargent used fashion to express identity and character and often chose his subjects’ attire or manipulated their clothing to achieve his desired artistic effect. The exhibition features nearly 60 of Sargent’s paintings, including rarely exhibited portraits. Additionally, period garments are displayed alongside the portraits in which they were worn.

Before John Singer Sargent’s birth on 12th January 1856, his father, FitzWilliam, worked as an eye surgeon at the Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia. Following the loss of his older daughter, Fitzwilliam’s wife, Mary, experienced a breakdown, prompting the family to go abroad to recover. From then on, they lived as nomadic expatriates, primarily based in Paris but regularly moving to different European locations. Although they led a modest and quiet life, they avoided society and other Americans, except for friends in the art world. During their time abroad, six more children were born, but only four of them lived past childhood, including John Singer Sargent.

Although his father provided a basic education, Sargent preferred outdoor activities over his studies. Despite several unsuccessful attempts at formal schooling due to their nomadic lifestyle, Sargent became fluent in English, French, Italian, and German. His mother, an amateur artist, and his father, a medical illustrator, provided him with sketchbooks. His mother believed travelling throughout Europe and visiting museums and churches would provide Sargent with a well-rounded education. Sargent diligently worked on his drawings, often copying images and sketching landscapes. At thirteen, Sargent received watercolour lessons from Carl Welsch, a German landscape painter.

After an unsuccessful attempt to study at the Academy of Florence, Sargent began studying with the French portraitist Carolus-Duran (1837-1917) in Paris. In 1874, Sargent passed the exam required for admission to the École des Beaux-Arts, the premier art school in France, and took drawing classes, including anatomy and perspective. Sargent shared a studio with James Carroll Beckwith (1852-1917), who helped him connect with other American artists abroad.

Carolus-Duran taught Sargent the alla prima method, which, inspired by Diego Velázquez (1599-1660), involved working directly on the canvas with a loaded brush. This technique differed significantly from traditional ateliers, but Sargent soon impressed his peers with his exceptional talent, which allowed him to meet prominent figures in the art world, including Degas, Rodin, Monet, and Whistler. Despite his initial focus on landscapes, Sargent’s interest gradually shifted towards portraiture. Sargent’s first major portrait, depicting his friend Fanny Watts in 1877, marked his debut at the Paris Salon.

Following his time with Carolus-Duran, Sargent travelled to Spain, where he immersed himself in the works of Velázquez, absorbing the master’s technique and gathering inspiration for his own future pieces. Upon returning to Paris, Sargent quickly gained numerous portrait commissions, thus launching his career. In between commissions, he produced many non-commissioned portraits of friends and colleagues.

In the early 1880s, Sargent regularly exhibited portraits at the Salon, such as Madame Ramón Subercaseaux (1881). Amalia Subercaseaux and her husband Ramón, a diplomat, were some of the first clients of Sargent in Paris. Sargent portrayed Amalia as a fashionable woman, comfortable in her elegant home. Her white afternoon dress, featuring a long, buttoned bodice and pleated organza skirt, was adorned with black velvet, ribbon, and lace. Amalia’s pose, seated at the piano but turned towards the viewer, highlighted the train of her dress for maximum impact.

In Portrait of Madame X, Sargent depicts Virginie Gautreau (1859-1915) in a graceful pose that evokes classical sculpture. Although she was American, Gautreau lived in France and was celebrated in Parisian high society for her striking looks, which she accentuated with dramatic gowns and bold white makeup. Sargent persuaded her to sit for a portrait, promising to create “a tribute to her beauty.” 

Although Portrait of Madame X is now one of Sargent’s most celebrated paintings, it is also his most controversial work. The first version of the portrait of Madame Gautreau featured an intentionally suggestive off-the-shoulder dress strap on her right side, creating a more daring and sensual overall effect. Sargent later repainted the strap to its over-the-shoulder position to reduce the controversy, but the damage had been done. It led to a decline in French commissions, and in 1885, Sargent considered giving up painting and going into music or business.

Observing the reactions of critics towards the original Portrait of Madame X, French poet Judith Gautier (1845-1917) wrote, “Is it a woman? a chimaera, the figure of a unicorn rearing as on a heraldic coat of arms or perhaps the work of some oriental decorative artist to whom the human form is forbidden and who, wishing to be reminded of woman, has drawn the delicious arabesque? No, it is none of these things, but rather the precise image of a modern woman scrupulously drawn by a painter who is a master of his art.”

Before the Madame X scandal, Sargent had considered moving to London and even sent paintings to the Royal Academy of Arts. One such painting, Dr Pozzi at Home (1881), depicts Samuel-Jean Pozzi (1846-1918), a Parisian doctor and gynaecology specialist associated with avant-garde art circles, who typically wore fashionable tailored suits. In a departure from the norm for portraits of professional men, Sargent portrayed him in an intimate domestic setting, dressed in a crimson dressing gown and Turkish slippers before a dark red curtain. 

In England, Sargent spent more time painting outdoors than in the studio. His first success in the country was Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose (1886), which helped to establish his reputation in Britain. Sargent spent over two years working on the painting, with most of the work done outdoors to capture the light as he desired. The inspiration for the painting came from Chinese lanterns hanging among trees and beds of lilies, which he saw while staying with friends in the Cotswolds. He then added the figures of two girls lighting the lanterns, both wearing specially made white dresses for the painting.

During his first trip to New York and Boston as a professional artist in the late 1880s, Sargent received over 20 important commissions, including portraits of Isabella Stewart Gardner, who became his patron. While in Boston, Sargent had his first solo exhibition, showcasing 22 paintings.

Upon returning to London, Sargent resumed his busy schedule. While some portraits were done in the client’s home, most were completed in his well-stocked studio, furnished with carefully chosen items for the desired effect. Unlike many artists, Sargent rarely used pencil or oil sketches, opting to apply oil paint directly. He also managed all tasks, including preparing canvases, varnishing the paintings, arranging for photography, shipping, and documentation.

In 1890, Sargent produced two non-commissioned portraits as show pieces for the Royal Academy, of which he became a full member in 1893. The first depicted Ellen Terry, a renowned British actress, as the Shakespeare character Lady Macbeth. Terry not only captivated audiences with her talent but also served as an inspiration to numerous artists and writers. When Sargent attended the premiere of Macbeth on 27th December 1888, he was so moved that he decided to create her portrait. Originally intending to depict a scene from the play, Sargent instead chose to portray Terry in a striking pose that highlighted her magnificent costume. 

The second of these non-commissioned portraits was La Carmencita (1890). Carmen Dauset Moreno (1868-1910), also known as Carmencita, was a celebrated Spanish dancer who performed in the United States, Europe, and South America. Sargent was greatly impressed by her performances and had the opportunity to see her dance in New York on several occasions. He even painted her in a studio that he had borrowed, and she also danced at a private party in his studio in 1895. Carmencita was known for her dynamic and intricate movements, but Sargent portrayed her in a more static pose.

In the 1890s, Sargent averaged fourteen portrait commissions per year, including Mrs Hugh Hammersley and Lady Agnew of Lochnaw. Sargent formed a close friendship with Mary Hammersley (1863-1902), who often hosted him at her London residence, where he would mingle with fellow artists such as Walter Sickert (1860-1942). Sargent depicted her wearing a cherry silk velvet gown adorned with gold lace at the cuffs, hem, and neckline. Mary fondly recalled her experience of sitting for Sargent, noting that on some days, he would be entirely consumed by his work, while on others, he would charm everyone with his piano-playing skills. Portraits such as Hammersley’s inspired sculptor Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) to describe him as “the Van Dyck of our time”.

Lady Agnew (Gertrude Vernon, 1864-1932) welcomed Sargent into her London home to discuss her portrait and consider a variety of gowns. Eventually, they settled on a white silk gown with sheer organza sleeves and lavender trimmings. Sargent painted swiftly, completing the work in just six sittings, using long diagonal strokes to capture the purple sash and the light and shadow on the fabric of her lap. The portrait received great praise when exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1893, solidifying Sargent’s standing in Britain and leading to his election as a member of the Royal Academy soon after.

Sargent painted three portraits of novelist Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-94), including one with the author’s wife. Sargent became acquainted with Stevenson (1850–1894) in his early days in Paris. The joint portrait of husband and wife was completed in Stevenson’s residence in Bournemouth, England, during the peak of his literary success. In the painting, Sargent captures Stevenson’s restless energy, depicting him as “walking about and talking.” Stevenson is walking away from his wife, Fanny Stevenson (1840–1914), who is dressed in exotic attire and appears to be a peripheral and seemingly passive figure despite her strong personality. During the Victorian era, it was common for people to wear clothing from other cultures, often without consideration for the origins of the garments.

During his career as a portraitist, Sargent painted two Presidents of the United States of America, Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) and Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924). Sargent’s portrait of Wilson is less ostentatious than other portraits. The painting was created during the First World War when Sargent contributed a blank canvas to a fundraising effort for the British Red Cross. He agreed to paint a portrait if someone offered £10,000, and the successful bidder could nominate the sitter. Irish dealer and collector Sir Hugh Lane (1875-1915) offered to pay the amount but passed away before choosing a subject. He left his estate to the National Gallery of Ireland, which decided on President Wilson as the nominee.

In 1898, a wealthy Jewish art dealer named Asher Wertheimer (1843-1918), who lived in London, commissioned Sargent to create a series of twelve portraits of his family. It became the artist’s largest commission from a single patron. Sargent depicted Ena and Betty, the eldest Wertheimer daughters, in the family’s drawing room. Betty wore a striking red velvet evening gown and held an open fan, while Ena dressed in shimmering white satin. Sargent also painted a portrait of Ena dressed as a cavalier, holding a broomstick as a sword. In another painting, the younger sister, Almina, opted to wear a Turkish robe to emphasise the family were Ashkenazi Jews. British culture stereotypically exoticised Ashkenazi Jews by depicting them in typical Eastern clothing.

One of Sargent’s final notable sitters was Thomas Lister (1854-1925), an esteemed politician and huntsman who inherited the title of fourth Baron Ribblesdale from his father. Lord Ribblesdale embodied the spirit of the Edwardian aristocracy and was known for his meticulous attention to his appearance. After careful consideration, Sargent decided to portray Ribblesdale in his distinctive “ratcatcher” hunting attire, which he regularly wore, rather than a typical riding outfit.

In 1907, at fifty-one, Sargent decided to close his studio for good. He expressed relief, saying, “Painting a portrait would be quite amusing if one were not forced to talk while working… What a nuisance having to entertain the sitter and to look happy when one feels wretched.” Between 1906 and 1913, Sargent made several trips to the Swiss Alps with his sisters, Emily Sargent (1857-1936), a talented painter, and Violet Sargent (Mrs Ormond) (1870-1955), along with Violet’s daughters Rose-Marie and Reine. These family members became the subjects of several of Sargent’s paintings, such as Nonchaloir (Repose) (1911).

Sargent depicted Rose-Marie Ormond reclining, possibly asleep, on a sofa within an unidentified and opulent interior adorned with ornate French furniture. The focal point of the scene is the fabric. The sofa is draped with a dark patterned fabric, mirroring the design of the Kashmiri shawl enveloping Rose-Marie. The French title ‘Nonchaloir’ can be translated to mean indifference or a lack of concern.

Throughout his extensive career, Sargent created over 2,000 watercolour paintings while travelling across various locations such as the English countryside, Venice, the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. Through his watercolours, Sargent indulged in his early artistic passions for nature, architecture, exotic cultures, and mountain landscapes. Sargent also depicted his family, friends, gardens, and fountains in watercolour, often portraying them in Orientalist attire, set against brightly lit landscapes that allowed for a more vibrant colour palette than his commissioned works.

In 1907, Sargent journeyed to the Italian Alps, accompanied by an array of clothing likely obtained during his travels in West Asia. In The Chess Game (1907), Rose-Marie is depicted playing chess by a stream, dressed in a Turkish entari, pink slippers and pantaloons, and a draped cashmere shawl. Meanwhile, Sargent’s valet, Nicola d’Inverno, wearing Turkish şalvar (loose trousers) and a long jacket, is seated beside her. Similar to previous European artists, Sargent utilized traditional West Asian attire to craft a whimsical scene detached from the original context of these garments.

Sargent lived as a lifelong bachelor, maintaining a wide circle of friends, including Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), his neighbour of several years. While biographers once depicted him as reserved, recent scholarship suggests he was a private, complex, and passionate man with a possible homosexual identity. Sargent also had a reputation as “the painter of the Jews”, influenced by his empathy for their shared social otherness. Despite the homosexual rumours, Sargent had numerous relationships with women.

Sargent helped establish the Grand Central Art Galleries in New York City in 1922, where a significant retrospective exhibit of Sargent’s work took place in 1924. Following this, he returned to England and passed away at his Chelsea home on 14th April 1925 due to heart disease. Sargent was buried in Brookwood Cemetery near Woking, Surrey.

John Singer Sargent’s portraits not only depict Victorian and Edwardian fashion, but they also document the end of an era. Sargent stopped painting most commissioned portraits in 1907, turning his hand to large-scale mural projects and First World War scenes. By the 1920s, fashion changed due to the widespread availability of ready-to-wear clothing. No longer were women wearing the fitted garments in Sargent’s paintings.

Tate Britain celebrates Sargent as a skilled artist with an eye for fashion. His attention to detail records the colours, textures and weights of fabrics available in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He also demonstrated that clothing can reveal a great deal about a sitter.

Sargent and Fashion is open at Tate Britain until 7th July 2024. Tickets cost £22, although concessions are available. Advanced booking is recommended.

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Angelica Kauffman

Described as “the most cultivated woman in Europe”, Angelica Kauffman was one of two female painters among the founding members of the Royal Academy in London in 1768. Until 30th June 2024, the RA celebrates Kauffman’s work and legacy in a small exhibition in their Jillian and Arthur M. Sackler Wing.

Maria Anna Angelika Kauffmann was born at Chur in Graubünden, Switzerland, on 30th October 1741, although her family relocated to Austria and Italy during her childhood. Her father, Joseph Johann Kauffmann (1707-82), worked as a muralist and painter and needed to travel for work. Kauffmann learnt to paint from her father and became his assistant at a young age. She also proved herself a child prodigy, learning to speak and sing in German, Italian, French and English with her mother, Cleophea Lutz.

Kauffman aspired to either paint or become an opera singer, but a Catholic priest deterred her from the latter. By age 12, Kauffman had a reputation for portraiture and painted several bishops and nobles. Her mother’s death in 1757 also influenced her career path because she had no choice but to follow her father to Italy, where she joined the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze in 1762. While in Florence, Kauffman studied Neoclassical painting, then the Old Masters in Naples, before sending her first painting to a public exhibition in London. After this, her popularity grew, particularly with British tourists, which prompted her eventual move to England.

Shortly before she arrived in England, Kauffman painted David Garrick (1717-79), Britain’s leading playwright and actor. This painting acted as Kauffman’s calling card, increasing her fame in London. Her popularity and connections eased Kauffman into society, where she befriended the likes of Joshua Reynolds (1723-92), who became the first president of the Royal Academy of Arts.

Soon after arriving in Britain, Kauffman married Frederick de Horn, a man posing as a Swedish Count. Within a year, Kauffman separated from her husband after discovering his real name was Brandt and that he already had a wife in Germany.

Kauffman’s unsuccessful marriage did not impact her career. Her signature features on the petition to King George III for the establishment of the Royal Academy, and with Mary Moser (1744-1819), she appears as one of the two females in the RA’s first catalogue of 1769. Around this time, Kauffman spent a lot of time in Ireland, painting portraits of notable clients, including Philip Tisdall, the Attorney General for Ireland, and Jean-Paul Marat.

From 1769 until 1782, Kauffman was an annual exhibitor with the Royal Academy. She generally produced history paintings, which was unusual for women. Many considered history painting the most elite and academic of the painting styles and beyond female comprehension. Despite this, the RA appreciated Kauffman’s painting skills and commissioned her to paint four oval paintings for the ceiling of the Council Room at Somerset House.

Kauffman’s four oval paintings represent Reynold’s theory of the ‘Elements of Art’. Kauffman depicted the four elements of art as women, which was uncommon as Design was traditionally portrayed as a man. The women are physically engaged in creating in Design and Colouring, whereas they are shown in contemplation for Composition and Invention. In the painting of Design, Kauffman featured the Belvedere Torso, one of the best-known classical sculptures of the time. The Royal Academy owned a plaster cast of the sculpture.

The figure representing Colour is dressed in white and ochre with a red mantle. In her left hand, she holds a palette and paintbrushes, while with the upraised right hand, she is stealing some pigment from the rainbow above her head. The figure is sitting on a grassy ledge with a chameleon at her feet, which alludes to the ability to change the colour and appearance of things.

Invention is depicted as an imposing allegorical female figure with two wings on the top of her head, and her right arm is leaning on a celestial orb. Her upward gaze and raised arm suggest her capability for higher thoughts. Composition is shown resting her head on her hand. The image also alludes to intellectual activities such as chess.

Although Kauffman remained popular for her portraits, her British audience was less enamoured with her history paintings, so she returned to mainland Italy, where the genre was better established. In 1781, her estranged, bigamist husband passed away, allowing Kauffman to marry again. She married the Venetian painter Antonio Zucchi (1726-95), whom she knew through the Royal Academy. Together, they settled and worked in Rome for the remainder of their lives.

Kauffman combined her love of portraits and history paintings by portraying sitters as mythical characters. She did the same for the self-portrait Self-Portrait Hesitating Between Painting and Music (1794). Kauffman stands between two figures representing the arts of music and painting, alluding to the story of Hercules at the crossroads and his choice between a life of vice or one of virtue. The painting, dedicated to her mother, recalls Kauffman’s choice between pursuing painting or opera singing.

An example of Kauffman’s history paintings is Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus (not shown in the current RA exhibition). It depicts Ariadne draped in sheer white fabric, lying on a low cushion bed with a vibrant red blanket with gold tassels underneath her. Her pose represents despair as she shields her face with one hand while the other reaches out in distress. Her back is to the sea, where Theseus’s ship is heading towards the soft pink horizon.

Ariadne, a character from Greek mythology, was the daughter of Minos, the king of Crete. She was responsible for overseeing the labyrinth where seven Athenians were sacrificed to the Minotaur every few years. Theseus was one of the Athenians chosen for sacrifice, but Ariadne fell in love with him and helped him navigate the labyrinth using a thread and kill the Minotaur. There are many variations of the story, but in each one, Theseus leaves Ariadne after defeating the beast. In one version, a distressed Ariadne hangs herself, while in another, she is left to die on the Island of Naxos. In the third version, Bacchus (Dionysus) finds her and marries her.

Kauffman did not usually paint religious topics, but Christ and the Samaritan Woman at the Well (1795) is a rare exception. It depicts the scene related in the Gospel of John, Chapter 4, in which Jesus asks a Samaritan woman for a drink of water. The relationship between the Jews and the Samaritans was complex, and many regarded them as foreigners and treated them with hostility. The Gospel of John shows a more favourable opinion of the Samaritans and thus includes this incident. Initially, the Samaritan woman felt unsure about speaking to Jesus. She said to him, “How is it that you, a Jew, ask a drink of me, a woman of Samaria?” Jesus went on to tell her about “living water”, using it as an analogy for God.

Angelica Kauffman died on 5th November 1807, aged 66. Christ and the Samaritan Woman at the Well was one of two paintings carried during the funeral procession directed by Italian sculptor Antonio Canova (1757-1822). Canova designed her funeral based on the funeral of the Renaissance master Raphael. A close friend of Kauffman, the architect Joseph Bonomi (1739-1808), described the funeral in detail in a letter, which took place at the Church of S. Andrea delli Fratti. Fifty Capuchins priests accompanied the funeral procession, some of whom carried the funeral bier. Four ladies held the corners of the cloth over the coffin, while four “Gentlemen of the Academy” held the tassels.

For over a century, Kauffman’s paintings remained on display in galleries across Europe. That is still the case today, although her popularity declined during the 20th century. In 2007, the Angelika Kauffmann Museum in Schwarzenberg, Austria, near the border of Switzerland, opened its doors. Housed in an old Kleberhaus (farmhouse), the museum regularly changes its exhibits to unveil different aspects and themes of her artistic work. Many of her paintings were shown publically for the first time at this museum.

In a world that is acknowledging the lack of representation of women in the past, Angelica Kauffman is a hero. After Kauffman and Mary Moser joined the Royal Academy in 1768, it was 168 years before another woman was allowed through the door. Even then, it had to be voted on several times until the outcome swung in favour of female applicants. Kauffman achieved what many women would not do for over a hundred years. She joined an all-male establishment, exhibited under her own name and produced paintings of topics deemed unfeminine. Kauffman proved what women could achieve, but sadly, it took a male-oriented society much longer to acknowledge.

The RA’s Angelica Kauffman exhibition provides an insight into a lesser-known painter who deserves as much attention and praise as other academicians. The RA showcases Kauffman’s journey from her rise to fame in London to her role as a founding member of the Royal Academy and her later career in Rome. Alongside Kauffman’s paintings are preparatory drawings and letters that help to unravel the remarkable life of “the most cultivated woman in Europe.”

The Angelica Kauffman exhibition is open until Sunday 30th June 2024. General tickets cost £17 and can be booked in advance.

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The Gospel According to Mark

The Gospel According to Mark is the second book of the New Testament and one of the three synoptic gospels in the Bible. Rather than beginning with Jesus’ birth, the Gospel tells of the ministry of Jesus from his baptism to his death and resurrection. Mark keeps Christ’s messianic nature secret, hence no miraculous birth yet portrays Jesus as a man of action, a miracle worker, a healer and an exorcist. Authorship of the Gospel is unknown, but it has been dated to around AD 65 – 75, making it the earliest of the four canonical gospels. Originally, scholars attributed the work to Mark the Evangelist, the founder of the Church of Alexandria, who appears in 2 Timothy as Paul’s companion. Another suggestion was John Mark, Paul’s assistant in the Acts of the Apostles. These theories have since been rejected in favour of an anonymous authoritative figure.

The Gospel of Mark was written in Greek for a Gentile audience and contains much of the same content as the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. Since it was written first, the other Gospel writers were likely influenced by Mark. Whilst there are many similarities between the synoptic gospels, there are also several differences. Mark intended to reveal a message, although it is also considered a historical report. 

At the time of writing, there were Jewish Christians, i.e. Jews who had converted, and new Christians, i.e. Gentiles who had come to believe that Jesus was the Son of God. All four gospels intended to strengthen the faith of those who already believed rather than to convert non-believers. Mark did not need to express to readers Jesus’ divinity but rather emphasise Christ’s suffering for Man.

There is no precise structure to the Gospel According to Mark, but many agree that it contains three parts: Galilean Ministry (1-9), Journey to Jerusalem (10) and Events in Jerusalem (11-16). A few contemporary scholars suggest the Gospel is characteristic of a three-act play, perhaps influenced by the structure of a Greek tragedy.

Chapter one opens with prophecies written by Malachi and Isaiah that state, “I will send my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way” (Malachi 1) “a voice of one calling in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him.’” (Isaiah 40:3) Although the Gospel is essentially about the life of Jesus, Mark begins by focusing on John the Baptist who had been preaching in the wilderness long before Jesus began his ministry. After this introduction, Jesus appeared and was baptised in the Jordan (1:9-11), followed by a brief account of the testing of Jesus by the Devil (1:12-13). Unlike Matthew, which went into some detail about these events, Mark glossed over them, not feeling the need to focus on Jesus’ divine status. 

Mark records Jesus calling his disciples, beginning with Peter and Andrew in chapter 1:16-20 and ending with Matthew in chapter 2:13-17. Once Jesus had called most of the disciples, he began to teach about healing and driving out demons. Before Jesus had called Matthew to be his disciple, he had already performed an exorcism (1:32-34), cured a leper (1:35-45) and healed a paralytic (2:1-12). 

In chapters two and three, Jesus’ actions began to anger the Jewish lawmakers, who wanted to know why he was “doing what is unlawful on the Sabbath.” This verse comes from chapter 2:23-28 when Jesus and the disciples were picking heads of grain on the Sabbath, a day of rest. Jesus reminded them that “The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath,” however, this did not appease them for long. Looking for a reason to accuse Jesus of a crime, the Pharisees pounced when Jesus healed a man’s hand on the Sabbath. Once again, Jesus gave reasoning for his actions, asking, “Which is lawful on the Sabbath: to do good or to do evil, to save life or to kill?” (3:4) After this, the Pharisees began to plot Jesus’ death with the Herodians.

Chapter 4 records a long discourse of parables, which Jesus delivered to a crowd. Parables include the Parable of the Sower (4:1-9), Lamp under a Bushel (4:21-23), the Mote and the Beam (4:24-25) and the Parable of the Mustard Seed (4:26-32). Although Jesus tried to explain the purpose of the Parables to the disciples, they, according to Mark, failed to understand Jesus’ true identity. Even at the end of the chapter, when Jesus calmed a storm by saying to the wind, “Quiet! Be still!” the disciples still did not recognise Jesus as the Son of God. “Who is this? Even the wind and the waves obey him!” (4:35-41)

Acts of healing continue until chapter nine, which marks the end of Jesus’ Galilean ministry. Three miracles occur one after the other in chapter five, beginning with restoring a demon-possessed man. Whilst an exorcism was not new for Jesus, this instance was different from others because the demon spoke, saying, “My name is Legion, for we are many.” (5:10) and begged not to be sent out of the area. The demon suggested Jesus send them into a herd of pigs instead. Jesus obliged, but the pigs, unable to cope with the demons inside them, rushed into a lake and drowned.

Two miracles immediately followed the restoration of the demon-possessed man, demonstrating the power of faith. A synagogue leader named Jairus specifically sought out Jesus because his daughter was dying. Whilst Jesus was on his way to see the daughter, a woman who had bled for twelve years reached out and touched Jesus’ cloak, believing it would make her well. Jesus told her, “Daughter, your faith has healed you. Go in peace and be freed from your suffering.” (5:34) Meanwhile, Jairus’ daughter had died, but Jesus commanded, “Talitha koum!” (5:41; which means “Little girl, I say to you, get up!”), and she did. Only Peter, James and John witnessed this resurrection, and Jesus gave them strict orders not to tell anyone.

Miracles continued throughout chapter six, including feeding the 5000 (6:30-44), walking on water (6:45-52), and healing many who touched the fringe of Jesus’ coat (6:53-56). Miracles also took place in chapter seven after a discourse on defilement during which Jesus tells the crowd, “Nothing outside a person can defile them by going into them. Rather, it is what comes out of a person that defiles them.” (7:1-23). Jesus performed another exorcism (7:24-30), healed a deaf-mute (7:31-37), and fed 4000 people (8:1-9). 

The narrative of Mark’s Gospel changes during chapter eight when the disciple Peter finally realises that Jesus is the Messiah (8:27-30). Jesus asked Peter not to tell anyone but began to prepare the disciples for his upcoming death. Without Peter’s insight, the other disciples did not understand what Jesus meant. Mark records the Transfiguration in chapter nine, which only Peter, James and John witnessed. According to Mark, Jesus told them not to tell anyone until the “Son of Man had risen from the dead.” The disciples did not comprehend this and discussed amongst themselves what “rising from the dead” meant. 

The unofficial second section of the Gospel According to Mark starts in chapter 10 with the journey to Jerusalem. Along the way, Jesus taught the crowds about divorce (10:2-12), blessed many children (10:13-16), and answered the question, “What must I do to inherit eternal life?” (10:17). Arriving in Jerusalem, Jesus was hailed as one “who comes in the name of the Lord!” (11:9-10). Notice Mark does not refer to Jesus being the Son of God; even Jesus does not refer to himself as such. After Jesus had cleared the Temple courts (11:15-19) and given his famous discourse about the Greatest Commandment (12:28-34), Jesus suggested the Messiah was not the Son of David but did not let on that he was the Messiah. 

The Olivet Discourse or Sermon on the Mount, although Mark does not refer to it as such, is contained in chapter 13. Jesus informed his disciples about the destruction of the Temple and the end of times, warning them to “Be on guard! Be alert!” (13:33) After preparing the disciples for the end of the world, Jesus started to prepare himself for his crucifixion, beginning with a meal at the house of Simon the Leper. During the meal, a woman anointed Jesus’ head with a jar of expensive perfume. Jesus told his indignant disciples that this act prepared his body for burial. Judas, on the other hand, could only think about the cost of the perfume and was delighted when the chief priests offered him money to betray Jesus. (14:1-10)

Unlike in the Gospel of Matthew, Mark’s account of the Last Supper does not mention the name of the disciple who betrays Jesus, although it is already specified earlier in the chapter. “Truly I tell you, one of you will betray me—one who is eating with me.” (14:18) After the meal, Jesus and his disciples went to a place called Gethsemane to pray. While they were there, Judas arrived with “a crowd armed with swords and clubs” (14:43) who arrested Jesus and took him to the Sanhedrin. Here, Jesus confessed to being the Messiah. According to Mark, he continued to refer to himself as the Son of Man rather than the Son of God. (14:53-65)

When questioned by Pilate, Jesus refused to answer the question, “Are you the king of the Jews?” His only response was, “You have said so.” With nothing to charge him with, Pilate asked the crowd whether he should release Jesus or a different prisoner, Barabbas. It was customary at Passover to release a prisoner whom the people requested; they chose Barabbas and ordered Jesus to be crucified. (15:1-15) A man from Cyrene called “Simon, the father of Alexander and Rufus”, was ordered to carry the cross, and Jesus was crucified under the banner “the King of the Jews”. (15:21-37)

Watching in the distance on the day Jesus was crucified were some women. Mark’s account of Jesus’ death differs from Matthew’s by saying, “Among them were Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joseph, and Salome.” (15:40) Matthew, on the other hand, cites the names “Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Joseph, and the mother of Zebedee’s sons.” (Matthew 27:56) This has led to many debates amongst scholars as to the names of Jesus’ brothers, i.e. James and Joseph. Mark 6:3 had already suggested he had brothers called James, Joseph, Judas and Simon, and some unnamed sisters. Mark also records that Jesus was buried by Joseph of Arimathea, a prominent member of the Council and “Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joseph saw where he was laid.” (15:42-47)

Chapter 16 records Mary Magdalene, Mary, the mother of James, and Salome discovering Jesus’ body is no longer in the tomb. A “young man dressed in a white robe sitting on the right side” told them Jesus the Nazarene had risen and sent them to tell Peter, but they were afraid and told no one. Again, this differs from Matthew’s angel, whose “appearance was like lightning, and his clothes were white as snow.” (Matthew 28:3) 

Early manuscripts of the Gospel According to Mark ended in chapter 16:8. Since then, 11 additional verses have been added to cover Jesus’ resurrection, the commissioning of the disciples, and his ascension. It is generally accepted that a different author penned these verses since the style differs from the rest of the Gospel. It was likely added to provide a more satisfactory ending to the book. This ending reveals Jesus rose on the first day of the week and met Mary Magdalene in the garden. Although Mary told the disciples that Jesus had risen, they refused to believe her and were subsequently rebuked by Jesus for having little faith. After Jesus commissioned the eleven to go out and preach the Gospel to all creation, “he was taken up into heaven and he sat at the right hand of God.” (16:19). 

Although Mark was the earliest Gospel, there are many differences in the way the life of Jesus is told. The disciples, for instance, show very little understanding of Jesus’ purpose and suffering, and yet, when things came to pass as Jesus had said, they ran away in denial. There is debate amongst scholars as to whether Mark was attacking the Jewish branch of Christianity for their lack of faith. Others say Mark’s purpose was to emphasise Jesus as the “Suffering Messiah”, suffering alone for the world.

Despite Mark’s secrecy about Jesus being the Messiah, almost a third of the Gospel focuses on Jesus’ miracles. That is proportionally more than any of the other gospels. Most of these twenty parables feature in the other Synoptic Gospels, except the Parable of the Growing Seed (4:26-29), which is unique to Mark. The verse “The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath” (2:27) appears in neither Matthew nor Luke and Pilate’s position was never mentioned – other gospels reveal he was Governor. Interestingly, there is no mention of Samaritans, who feature in both Matthew and Luke.

The Gospel According to Mark is the only Gospel that retains the original Aramaic commands Jesus used during acts of healing. Talitha koum, as already mentioned, was used during the raising of Jairus’ daughter. The other Aramaic phrase is “Ephphatha!” (7:34, which means “Be opened!”) said during the healing of a deaf-mute man. 

The significant difference between Mark and the other gospels is the reluctance to portray Jesus as a “divine man”. Ultimately, Mark did not want Jesus to be mistaken for a Hercules-like figure; Jesus’ mission was one of suffering and pain rather than glory and conquest. Whereas the later gospels record Jesus’ death as victorious, Mark, on the other hand, emphasises the despair and agony. It is potentially for this reason that Mark originally ended in chapter 16:8 rather than rejoicing that Jesus was alive. Christ’s suffering was a fulfilment of the divine plan. 

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The Gospel According to Matthew

The Gospel According to Matthew is the first book of the New Testament and one of the three synoptic gospels in the Bible. These three gospels often overlap, but at least 20% of Matthew’s content is unique. It tells the story of Jesus’ life from his birth until his crucifixion and resurrection, encompassing the calling of his disciples, several miracles and many parables. Most scholars believe the Gospel was written between AD 80 and 90, yet other suggestions place it anywhere between AD 70 and 110.

Despite being known as Matthew’s Gospel, the author’s identity is unknown. Originally, the authorship was attributed to Matthew the Apostle, but this theory is largely rejected today. The author was likely a Jew whose religious beliefs fluctuated between traditional and non-traditional values. 

The Gospel was written just after the First Jewish-Roman War (AD 66-73), which saw the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. Although Christianity had begun with Jesus, it was more a Jewish messianic movement until after this war, when it gradually evolved into a separate Gentile religion. “Matthew” was more likely a Jewish Christian, meaning he was a member of a community that had cut itself from its Jewish roots to follow Christ. As a result, the Gospel was intended for Greek-speaking Jewish Christians, possibly in Syria, who were already familiar with Jewish customs. The author did not feel the need to explain these traditions.

Matthew begins with the genealogy of Jesus (1:1-17), tracing the descent from Abraham to David and David to Jesus. This beginning is further evidence that Matthew was Jewish because, unlike the Gospel of Luke, which provides a genealogy from Adam, the father of the human race, Matthew begins with Abraham, the father of the Jews. Following this, Matthew describes the events surrounding Jesus’ birth, including the visit from the magi (2:1-12) and the massacre of the innocents. The rest of chapter two tells of the flight into Egypt and the return to Nazareth.

Chapter three begins with the baptism of Jesus by his cousin John, during which the Holy Spirit descends upon him. The following chapter describes the 40 days Jesus spent praying and meditating in the Judean desert. During this time, Jesus was tempted by Satan on three occasions, but the devil had no power over him. After this period, Jesus travelled to Capernaum, where he gradually called his disciples. He then moved on to Galilee, where he began his ministry.

The Gospel of Matthew is divided into five narratives or discourses, with the aforementioned chapters being the prologue. The first discourse encompasses chapters 5-7 and is often referred to as Sermon on the Mount. This section is the most quoted part of the New Testament because it includes the Lord’s Prayer and the Beatitudes. The latter is expressed as a series of blessings and presents new ideas about love and humility. Along with mercy, spirituality and compassion, which Jesus also spoke about in this discourse, the Beatitudes present the ethics of the Kingdom of God. Jesus taught about issues that could result in persecution, such as divorce, lust and materialistic values. He warned of false prophets and taught the disciples how to pray (The Lord’s Prayer; 6:9-13).

Between the first and second discourse, Jesus performed a series of miracles, including the calming of the storm (8:23-27), healing a paralytic (9:1-8), the raising of Jairus’ daughter (9:18-26) and giving sight to the blind (9:27-31). Shortly after the healing of a paralytic, Jesus called Matthew – a potential author of the Gospel – to discipleship. “As Jesus went on from there, he saw a man named Matthew sitting at the tax collector’s booth. “Follow me”, he told him, and Matthew got up and followed him.” (9:9, NIV). As a tax collector, Matthew would have been an unpopular person and an unusual choice for an apostle – so the Pharisees expressed. 

The second discourse has been given different names by various scholars, including the Mission Discourse, the Missionary Discourse, and the Little Commission. The latter is about the Great Commission later in the Gospel (28:16-20). The discourse spans chapters 10-12 and begins with Jesus’ instructions to his disciples. Jesus commissioned Simon Peter, Andrew, James, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew, James of Alphaeus (which means “changing” in Greek), Thaddaeus, Simon the Cananaean, and Judas Iscariot to travel to Israelite communities to proclaim “the Kingdom of heaven is near.” He encouraged them to “Heal the sick, bring the dead back to life, heal those who suffer from dreaded skin diseases, and drive out demons. You have received without paying, so give without being paid.” (10:8, GNT) Jesus also performed three miracles of his own: healing a man with a withered hand (12:9-14), exorcising a blind-mute man (12:22-28) and driving out a demon or unclean spirit (12:43-45). 

The third narrative – the Parabolic Discourse – takes place in chapter 13. Divided into 58 verses, this chapter contains seven parables that attempt to explain the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus gave the first four parables on a boat on the Sea of Galilee from which he could address the crowds of people standing on the shore. Matthew records these parables in the following order: Parable of the Sower, Parable of the Tares, Parable of the Mustard Seed and Parable of Leaven. According to Matthew, Jesus only provided explanations for the parables of the Sower and the Tares. The remaining three parables were given to Jesus’ disciples: Parable of the Hidden Treasure, Parable of the Pearl and Parable of Drawing in the Net. Some scholars claim verse 52 as an eighth parable: “Therefore every scribe which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that is a householder, which bringeth forth out of his treasure things new and old.” (KJV) At the end of the chapter, Jesus is rejected by his hometown of Nazareth. (13:53-58)

Following the death of John the Baptist at the beginning of chapter 14, several events and miracles occur before the fourth discourse. Chapter 14 contains the feeding of the 5000 (14:13-21), walking on water (14:22-33) and the healing of many through the touching of Jesus’ cloak (14:34-36). Miracles continue throughout chapter 15, including the exorcism of a Canaanite woman’s daughter (15:21-28) and the feeding of the 4000 (15:32-39).

Some scholars say the fourth discourse begins in chapter 16, whereas others say it is exclusive to chapter 18. The Discourse on the Church, as it is known, reveals the increasing opposition to Jesus, which prompts Jesus to prepare his disciples for his crucifixion. In chapter 16, Simon declares that Jesus is the Messiah, to which Jesus responds by renaming him Peter, meaning rock – “and on this rock, I will build my church…” (16:18). Peter is given the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven and is told, “whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.” (16:19). The phrase is repeated to all of the apostles in chapter 18, verse 18, hence why some scholars claim the fourth discourse to have begun in chapter 16. 

Jesus predicted his death at the end of chapter 16 and did so twice more in chapter 17. The latter features Matthew’s version of the Transfiguration, in which Jesus speaks to Moses and Elijah on a mountain (17:1-13). This event is followed by the exorcism of a boy possessed by a demon (17:14-21) and the miracle of the coin in the fish’s mouth (17:24-27).

Chapter 18, in which the majority of the Discourse on the Church takes place, focuses on the preparation of the disciples for the post-crucifixion Church. It begins with the teaching of Jesus about little children, which is repeated briefly in chapter 19: “Truly I tell you, unless you change and become like little children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven.” (18:3, NIV) Jesus went on to say that anyone who caused someone to “stumble” would never go to heaven. He advised it would be better to chop off the parts that caused you to stray, be it foot, hand or eye than spend eternity in hell. Jesus followed with the Parable of the Lost Sheep (18:10-14) and concluded the chapter with the Parable of the Unmerciful Servant (18:23-35). 

The final discourse does not begin until chapter 23. Before then, Jesus journeyed to Jerusalem, speaking to people along the way. He gave the Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard (19:1-16) and healed two unnamed blind men near Jericho (10:29-34) before eventually making his triumphal entry into Jerusalem (21:1-11). Several notable events occur in chapters 21 and 22, starting with the cleansing of the Temple (21:12-17) and the cursing of the fig tree (21:18-22), which led to Jesus having his authority questioned (21:23-27). Jesus responded to this with three parables: The Two Sons, The Wicked Husbandman, and The Wedding Feast (21:28-22:14).

Jesus was subjected to several debates throughout chapter 22. Firstly, Jesus was asked if he believed in paying taxes to Caesar, which prompted the response: “Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s and unto God the things that are God’s.” (22:21) Secondly, the Sadducees tried to trick Jesus by asking complicated questions about the resurrection of the dead, to which Jesus reminded them that God was the God of the living. Finally, the Pharisees asked Jesus, “Teacher, which is the great commandment in the Law?” (22:36, NASB) Jesus responded by paraphrasing the Torah: “‘You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.’ This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, ‘You shall love your neighbour as yourself.'” (22:37-39, NASB, see Deuteronomy 6:4-5 and Leviticus 9:17-18)

The fifth and final discourse includes Matthew 23, 24 and 25 and is usually known as the Olivet Discourse because it was given on the Mount of Olives. Some refer to it as the Discourse on the End Times. Jesus’ disciples were curious about the future, particularly the “end of the age”. Jesus responded by predicting the destruction of the Temple, which sat opposite the Mount of Olives. He warned them about the Antichrist, false prophets and persecution. He warned of earthquakes, famines, pestilence, and fearful events that would lead up to the Second Coming of Christ. Having concluded his final discourse, Jesus turned his attention to his approaching crucifixion.

The events of the final three weeks of Jesus’ life had already begun before the Olivet Discourse with his triumphal entry into Jerusalem and the cleansing of the Temple. The next event, after the discourse, was the anointing of Jesus, which is recorded in all four Gospels. Jesus visited the house of Simon the Leper in Bethany, and while he was there, “a woman came to him with an alabaster jar of very expensive perfume, which she poured on his head as he was reclining at the table.” (26:7, NIV) The act was a sign of Jesus’ approaching death – perfume was often used to prepare a body for burial. Following this, Judas Iscariot went to the chief priests and offered to hand Jesus to them in exchange for money – 30 pieces of silver.

The Tears of St Peter – El Greco (1541–1614)

The famous Last Supper takes place in Matthew 26, during which Jesus identifies Judas as his betrayer. Jesus also told Peter, “This very night, before the rooster crows, you will disown me three times.” (26:34) Although Peter protested, before the end of the chapter, it had come to pass as Jesus had said. Jesus then went to the Garden of Gethsemane, taking only Peter, James and John, where he prayed to God until Judas arrived with a large crowd who arrested Jesus. He was tried by the Sanhedrin before Pontius Pilate, who symbolically washed his hands of the matter. Chapter 27 details the torture Jesus was subjected to, ending with his death upon the cross.

Chapter 28, the final chapter in the Gospel of Matthew, contains the Great Commission. Mary Magdalene “and the other Mary” had gone to look at the tomb only to discover that Jesus was no longer there. Jesus then appeared to them and instructed, “Go and tell my brothers to go to Galilee; there they will see me.” (28:10, NIV) The Great Commission only encompasses verses 16 to 20 but is important nonetheless. In Matthew’s account, which is considered the most famous version, Jesus gives the disciples the following instructions: “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.” These are the final words of the Gospel.

The Gospel of Matthew contains approximately 76% of the content of the Gospel of Mark, suggesting the latter was written first. Matthew has appropriated the key Christological texts from Mark – the theological doctrine of Christ – rewriting them from his own understanding. Matthew’s main concern was to preserve Jewish traditions that were gradually being eradicated in the increasingly Gentile church. Quoting or paraphrasing verses from the Old Testament was one method of doing this. Matthew painted Jesus as a new Moses and emphasised that Jesus was fulfilling and not destroying the Law. 

Believing in the divine nature of Jesus separated Matthew’s community from the other Jews. Although the Gospel is sometimes considered a reinterpretation of Mark, Matthew’s subtle changes specifically emphasised Jesus’ divinity. For instance, Mark writes of “a young man sitting on the right side, dressed in a white robe” (Mark 16:5, ESV) by the empty tomb, whereas Matthew describes the figure as an angel of the Lord whose “appearance was like lightning, and his clothes were white as snow.” (28:3, NIV) Matthew’s record of Jesus’ miracles also expresses his divine nature, whereas Mark writes as though Jesus was an emissary of God. Despite primarily being the story of the life of Jesus, the Gospel of Matthew is a reflection of the struggles between the evangelist communities and the other Jews, particularly the Pharisees. 

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Happy Christmas

Thank you for taking the time to read my blogs this year. I wish you a peaceful Christmas.

Here is my first attempt at a digital illustration, which I used for my Christmas cards.

Fruits of the Spirit

But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control. Galatians 5:22-23

Located on the National Gallery website, Fruits of the Spirit: Art from the Heart, edited by Susanna Avery‐Quash and Ayla Lepine, looks at 18 paintings, some from the National Gallery and others from elsewhere, and connects them with the Fruits of the Spirit mentioned in the biblical Book of Galatians. For over a decade, the gallery has researched the connection between art and religion and is beginning to reveal its findings to the public. The digital project links two paintings to each of the nine themes listed by Saint Paul, which Christianity promotes as being the most positive and universal ways to live.

Here are a selection of the artworks chosen by this project:

Love

The Virgin Suckling the Infant Christ by Titian (d.1576) represents the bond between mother and child. Created between 1565 and 1575, it depicts the Virgin Mary breastfeeding the infant Jesus. Unlike other paintings of the Virgin and Child, there are no halos to symbolise the figures’ importance. Instead, it portrays the pure love a mother has for her son.

As an artist, Titian had the skill to capture the human form and create beautiful and emotionally powerful works. In this painting, he captured the tenderness and intimacy of the relationship between mother and child.

The painting’s purpose has been the subject of many scholarly discussions. Some scholars suggest the scene reflects the Catholic Church’s emphasis on the importance of motherhood. The role of the Virgin Mary is often used as a symbol of maternal love and devotion. Others suggest that the painting depicts Titian’s personal beliefs about the importance of family and the bond between parent and child. Either way, the theme of motherly love runs through this artwork.

Joy

Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890), a Dutch post-impressionist painter, is famous for his series of Sunflowers. The first series, which he produced in Paris in 1887, depicted the flowers lying on the ground, whereas the second series, made in Arles between 1888 and 1889, features a bouquet of sunflowers in a vase. Van Gogh painted the latter to decorate the spare room in his house before his friend Paul Gauguin‘s (1848-1903) visit.

The version in the National Gallery was created in August 1888. The painting is a representation of the beauty of nature and the joy it can bring. The thick brushstrokes evoke the texture of the seed heads, and the yellow paint demonstrates the bright vibrancy of the petals.

Van Gogh captured nature’s beauty and the emotion it conveyed. Sunflowers are often associated with happiness, and therefore joy. Some scholars argue that Van Gogh believed in the importance of nature, and others suggest these paintings were Van Gogh’s attempt to find joy and beauty in the world, despite his struggles with mental illness.

Peace

French Impressionist Claude Monet (1840-1926) painted approximately 250 oil paintings of water lilies. The paintings depict the flowers in his garden at his home in Giverny, France. These artworks became the main focus of his career during his final thirty years. One of the paintings in the series, dated after 1916, is now housed in the National Gallery.

Although the painting may not appear particularly colourful, Monet contrasted the blue and green hues of the water and lily pads with the pink and purple tones of the flowers. He also created a sense of sunlight falling on the water, adding an element of depth.

Water lilies are often associated with tranquillity, calmness and peace. Monet’s garden became a sanctuary during his later years. Due to failing eyesight, he did not venture far from home, preferring to stick to the land he knew well. Some scholars suggest the water lily paintings reflect Monet’s desire to find peace and the beauty of a world he could no longer see due to cataracts.

Patience

The Reader by the French artist Marguerite Gérard depicts a young woman reading a book in the privacy of her home. She is craning her head towards the pages while a cat sits on her lap, and her son stands listlessly at her side.

The woman is distracted from her motherly duties by her book, possibly a sentimental novel, which was highly popular in France at the time. This theory is supported by the inclusion of a bird cage and canary in the painting hanging on the wall. In 17th and 18th-century Dutch paintings, canaries signified pent-up passion waiting to be released.

While his mother reads, the boy stands patiently by her side. The viewer may wonder if the child will be rewarded for his patience or if the mother’s disinterest in her son is an indication of neglect. Perhaps the mother has waited patiently to find the time to read and is reluctant to give up such a pleasure. Stepping outside of the painting, the artwork also demonstrates the tolerance of the sitters posing for Gérard, as well as the artist’s patient, painstaking brushwork.

Marguerite Gérard was a French artist who lived from 1761 to 1837. Despite her gender, she was one of the most accomplished painters of her time and was known for her ability to capture the beauty of everyday life. She was trained by her famous brother-in-law, Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732-1806), and took inspiration from 17th-century Dutch genre paintings, which she re-invented by focusing on female figures within private domestic settings.

Kindness

Eugène Delacroix’s (1798-1863) painting Ovid among the Scythians depicts the Roman poet Ovid in exile, surrounded by a group of Scythians who have taken him into their camp. Despite being a foreigner, Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE) appears comfortable and at ease with these strangers. One of the Scythians offers Ovid a drink while another approaches with a bowl of food. Historically, people regarded Scythians as barbarians, yet Delacroix depicts them as men and women with emotions and feelings. He shows them as human beings who can empathise with others and act kindly towards others.

The figures in the painting are well-crafted. Ovid is depicted as a frail and vulnerable man, highlighting his humanity and vulnerability. The Scythians are strong and muscular, emphasising their physical strength. Their physical appearance contrasts with their thoughtful and empathetic behaviour, demonstrating kindness in a similar vein to the parable of the Good Samaritan.

The scene represents the time Emperor Augustus exiled Ovid to the port of Tomis in present-day Romania. In Ovid’s accounts, he described Tomis as a war-torn cultural wasteland, yet Delacroix depicted the Scythians living in peace and harmony. Delacroix felt it was more important to portray how a civilised society should treat its citizens and foreigners rather than how barbarians stereotypically behaved.

Generosity

Ron Stenberg’s (1919-2017) painting Two Auld Wifies, Dundee depicts two people sitting on a bench having a conversation. Dressed in traditional Scottish clothing, the figures were mistaken for two women by the artist, when in reality they were mother and son. The lady on the left, Janet, met her son, Alexander, every Friday. He had profound learning disabilities and lived at a nearby hospital.

Stenberg painted the pair because he enjoyed people-watching. “I like characters and thought they’d make a grand painting. These two characters were sitting there completely oblivious to everyone else. I sketched them a couple of times. They never even saw me.” Stenberg can be forgiven for misgendering one of the figures, but what he captured was a mother’s enduring love for her son.

The people of Dundee were not very kind to Janet and Alexander, regarding them as eccentric and unconventional. Life was not easy for either mother or son, yet they confidently met on a public bench once a week. When Stenberg spotted the two figures, he did not think they were peculiar nor ostracised them as so many others had during their lives. Stenberg merely thought the scene would make a good painting. Since identifying Janet and Alexander, people became more aware of those with different life experiences and began to treat strangers more fairly and generously. Despite her difficult life, Janet generously left a substantial estate to establish the Mrs Janet T. Isles Denny Trust to benefit the people of Dundee.

Faithfulness

Orazio Gentileschi’s (1563-1639) The Finding of Moses is a baroque painting that captures the moment when Pharaoh’s daughter discovers the baby Moses floating in a basket along the River Nile. The scene depicts the Egyptian princess reaching towards the baby in the basket while her attendants stand around her.

The story of Moses, as told in the Bible, is a powerful example of faithfulness. It demonstrates God’s faithfulness to his people, a mother’s faithfulness to her son, and the Pharaoh’s daughter’s faithfulness to a baby. The princess decided to take the baby into her care despite knowing he was one of the Hebrew children her father had ordered killed.

On the left side of the painting stands a woman wearing red and another kneeling at her feet. These are the mother and sister of Moses, offering to help the princess look after the baby. Moses’ mother had faith that placing her son in a basket on the River Nile would save him from Pharoah’s soldiers. To remain a part of Moses’ life, she offers to be his wet nurse, to which the princess readily agrees.

The Finding of Moses is a reminder that God is faithful to his people, even in the darkest of times. God prevented Moses’ death, allowing him to grow up to eventually set his people free.

Gentleness

Thomas Gainsborough’s (1727-88) painting The Painter’s Daughters with a Cat (1760) depicts the two daughters of the artist, Mary and Margaret, sitting in a garden with a cat. Although unfinished, the painting has a serene and peaceful ambience, enhanced further by soft and muted tones. The two girls are portrayed in a very natural and relaxed manner, which reflects their innocence and carefree nature.

It is difficult to see the cat because it is sketched very lightly, but the girls are clearer. The sisters demonstrate a loving gentleness and protectiveness towards each other. The younger one leans her forehead against her sister’s cheek while the older one wraps her arms around her little sister. Gainsborough’s technique is also gentle, almost as though he caressed his brush in light feathery strokes over the canvas. The ethereal touches of faded pink and gold make it seem the figures may dissolve into the background at any moment.

Self-control

The National Gallery uses Turner’s (1775-1851) Rain, Steam and Speed as an example of self-control, holding people “back from destruction and giving us space to reflect on the importance of not taking more than we can give.” The painting contrasts the need for industrial progress with the fear of environmental damage and climate crisis.

Whether climate change was on Turner’s mind when he produced this painting is unknown. Most scholars interpret it as a celebration of engineering. Rain, Steam and Speed depicts a steam train travelling across the newly built Maidenhead Railway Bridge. The colours of the sky and the surroundings suggest it could be a miserable day, but the train trundles on regardless, reaching speeds of up to 60 mph.

Other interpretations suggest it was not painted on a murky day. Instead, the view is obscured by the steam of the engine. During the 1840s, a Member of Parliament expressed concern that train travel would cause environmental devastation. He wrote that in society’s eagerness to travel at speed, “mountains were to be cut through, valleys were to be lifted … the earth was to be tunnelled.” His phrasing referenced chapter 40, verse 4 of the Book of Isaiah, which reads, “Every valley shall be exalted and every mountain and hill shall be made low.” The MP argued that a lack of self-control in the industrial world would cause havoc for the future of the environment – a sentiment still expressed by many today.

To view all 18 paintings in the digital collection, click here.

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Philip Guston

Until 25th February 2024, 50 years of work by Canadian artist Philip Guston (1913-80) is on display at Tate Modern. Concerned with philosophical and social concerns, Guston’s abstract expressionist work responds to wars, racism and violence. He felt it was his responsibility to challenge “the brutality of the world” through his art and consistently changed and reinvented himself in doing so.

Born Phillip Goldstein in Montreal on 27th June 1913, Guston was the son of Russian Jewish parents, who immigrated to Canada shortly before his birth. At age 6, Guston and his family moved to Los Angeles, where they became aware of the Ku Klux Klan’s racism towards Jews and Blacks. As a result of this persecution, Guston’s father hanged himself in 1923. His older brother died in a car crash a few years later.

In 1927, Guston enrolled in the Los Angeles Manual Arts High School and became friends with future artist Jackson Pollock (1912-56). Although the boys detested the school’s emphasis on sports over art, their education included European modern art, Eastern philosophy, theosophy and mystic literature, which greatly influenced their artistic careers. After high school, Guston attended the Otis Art Institute in Los Angeles but left after a year, dissatisfied with the teaching methods. From then on, Guston remained a self-taught artist, taking inspiration from the people he met throughout his life.

Guston’s early works focused on racism, including a mural for the John Reed Club of Los Angeles to raise money for the Scottsboro Boys Trial in 1932, in which nine Black teenagers were falsely accused of rape and sentenced to death. The mural, which Guston worked on with American artist Reuben Kadish (1913-92), aimed to help the boys gain freedom, but the police and anti-communist groups destroyed the artwork.

Guston and Kadish worked on another mural in 1934 in the former summer palace of Emperor Maximilian. Titled The Struggle Against Terror, the mural spanned 1,000-square-foot (93 m2) and caught the attention of Time magazine, who called them “the most promising painters in either the US or Mexico”. The artwork detailed stories from Mexican history, which the artists learnt from the muralist Diego Rivera (1886-1957), the husband of Frida Kahlo (1907-54). Scenes included: tortured women; hooded priests of the Spanish Inquisition, which look similar to costumes worn by the Ku Klux Klan; men felling a giant; and Communist symbols. Overall, it demonstrated the Mexican people’s resistance to persecution and violence.

Between 1934 and 1943, Guston worked on over 15 murals and public artworks. These included several for the Works Progress Administration in New York, where he moved in 1935. Guston took inspiration from Mexican muralists, American realist painters, and Renaissance artists, such as Giotto (1267-1337).

In 1935, due to Hitler’s rise in Germany, many American Jews changed their names to hide their Jewish heritage. Phillip Goldstein became Philip Guston, by which name he was known for the rest of his life. In 1937, Guston married Musa McKim (1908-92), a painter and poet. Musa also worked on murals, such as Pulp Wood Logging and Wildlife in White Mountain for the U.S. Forest Service building in Laconia, New Hampshire alongside her husband.

During the 1950s, Guston began experimenting with abstract expressionism, known as the New York School. Comprising of American poets, painters, dancers, and musicians, the School took inspiration from surrealism and other contemporary art forms. Many of Guston’s paintings from this era consisted of blocks of colour and gestural strokes. Zone (1953-54), for instance, is a mass of predominantly red brush markings, although some blue is also visible.

“Blue is a strange colour to use for me in any case – because it always evaporates … But to bring it frontal, to make it feel on the plane, to me, is something to conjure with.” – Philip Guston

Guston used a limited colour palette during the 1950s, predominately favouring black, grey, red and blue. Although his abstract expressionist paintings may appear like a blur of colours, Guston maintained that they all represented something. The Return (1956-58) contains abstracted forms or figures returning home from a long absence.

Towards the end of Guston’s abstract expressionist period, he became interested in ambiguous, solid forms. By the late 1960s, Guston’s art resembled cartoons, which some critics found distasteful. One curator, Michael Auping, exclaimed, “He’s out of his mind, and this isn’t art,” yet many people changed their minds and grew to appreciate Guston’s new style.

Guston’s first exhibition featuring his neo-expressionist works focused on the injustices he saw in society. His large-scale paintings depicted hooded figures in commonplace settings, such as in the car, school, or the workplace. The hoods were not solely representative of the Ku Klux Klan; they symbolised evil. “The idea of evil fascinated me … I almost tried to imagine that I was living with the Klan. What would it be like to be evil? To plan and plot.”

American historian Carter G. Woodson (1875-1950) once wrote, “There would be no lynching if it did not start in the schoolroom.” Guston attempted to demonstrate this in his paintings of hooded figures. The hoods obscured the identities of the people under them, so it was impossible to know who belonged to the Klan. Teachers at schools and other authoritative figures could influence unsuspecting children to develop racist and unjust opinions.

During the 1970s, Guston moved away from painted hooded figures to depicting everyday objects or junk, which he referred to as “crapola”. Guston worked closely with young poets and writers, such as Clark Coolidge (b,1939) and Philip Roth (1933-2018). He produced images or “poem-pictures” based on their verses. Guston also featured his wife’s poetry in his paintings.

Guston began symbolically featuring his wife in his paintings, usually representing her by her forehead and parted hair. In The Ladder (1978), Musa’s head peaks over a blue wall, upon which leans a ladder and an impossible pair of legs. Alternatively, the scene could depict a free-standing ladder in a vast ocean, with the sun appearing just over the horizon.

Musa McKim suffered a series of strokes in 1977, which prevented her from writing poetry. Caring for his wife made Guston aware of his own mortality, which is evident in the dark, nightmarish scenes of his final paintings. Guston painted Couple in Bed (1977) shortly after his wife’s health deteriorated. It depicts Guston clinging to Musa in bed, while in his hand he grips his paintbrushes. For 40 years, Guston relied on Musa’s presence in his life as much as he did his art materials. This painting represents Guston’s fear that the two constants in his life would be taken from him.

The Line (1978) is one of Guston’s most recognised paintings, thanks to Tate Modern using it for their exhibition advertisements. A hand gripping a piece of charcoal descends from the sky and draws a line along the ground. There are several theories about the meaning of the piece. Guston once said about art, “I think it’s kind of like devil’s work … Only God can make a tree.” The hand reaching down from the sky is like God reaching down from the heavens. Alternatively, it may reflect Guston’s method of working with other artists, poets and writers. He often felt other people were guiding his hand, almost as though he had no control over the outcome.

“When you start working, everybody is in your studio – the past, your friends, enemies, the art world, and above all, your own ideas … But as you continue painting, they start leaving, one by one, and you are left completely alone. Then, if you’re lucky, even you leave.” – Philip Guston

A couple of weeks before Guston’s retrospective exhibition at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Guston died of a heart attack on 7th June 1980. The death of the 66-year-old artist prompted renewed interest in his work, which continues to the present day. Whilst Guston’s visual style changed throughout his career, his paintings were usually preoccupied with life’s nightmares, such as social injustice. Nevertheless, it is not always possible to decipher the meanings of his canvases. Guston believed a painting should tell a story and allow the viewer to see what they want to see.

Guston’s themes have caused controversy recently, with many galleries banning his work, including the Tate Modern. The paintings of Klan figures caused the most problems, with Tate, the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston jointly postponing their 2020 retrospectives to 2024 “until a time at which we think that the powerful message of social and racial justice that is at the centre of Philip Guston’s work can be more clearly interpreted.” Over 2,000 artists signed a petition in protest of this decision, prompting the galleries to bring their exhibitions forward to 2022 and 2023.

Philip Guston’s artwork may not be to everyone’s tastes, but it gives a first-person account of the various atrocities faced in the 20th century. Whilst Guston did not suffer at the hands of the Nazis, he experienced the anti-Jewish behaviour of groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. He also witnessed the effects of racism in America, yet was not afraid to draw attention to the evil through his art.

The Philip Guston exhibition at the Tate Modern is open until 25th February 2024. Tickets cost £20. Concessions are available.

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Saint Francis of Assisi

Saint Francis of Assisi is a well-known name in the Western world. He was the topic of numerous paintings between the 14th and 17th centuries, although his popularity has since dwindled. Most people only know Saint Francis’ name or regard him as a saint that liked animals. After looking at Saint Francis’ life in detail, it is clear he was much more than an animal enthusiast.

Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone was born in Assisi, Italy, in 1181 to Pietro di Bernardone dei Moriconi, a silk merchant, and Pica di Bourlemont, a French noblewoman. His father was away on business and missed his son’s birth and baptism. Pica chose the name Giovanni, but when Pietro returned, he insisted on calling his son Francesco, meaning either “Free Man” or “Frenchman”.

From a wealthy background, Francis (Giovanni or Francesco) had a high-spirited life. He spent money on fine clothing and used his wit and handsome looks to gain friends. He frequently helped his father sell silk in the market in his younger years. According to one legend, a beggar asked Francis for alms, and he promptly gave the poor man everything he had in his pockets. His father was angry with his son’s charity, and many friends mocked him.

In 1202, Francis joined a military expedition against Perugia, a province in central Italy. The opposition took Francis as a prisoner in the hamlet of Collestrada, where he remained captive for a year. During this time, Francis suffered ill health and had plenty of time to contemplate his lifestyle. Yet, on his release in 1203, Francis returned to his carefree life in Assisi.

Francis followed his friends to Apulia in southern Italy in 1205 to enlist in the army of Walter III, Count of Brienne. En route, Francis experienced a strange vision, prompting his return to Assisi. The young aristocrat was a changed man, no longer desiring worldly possessions. He avoided feasts and festivals and refused to associate with his former companions. 

Unsure of his purpose, Francis spent time in quiet places, seeking God’s spiritual enlightenment. He continued experiencing visions but did not always understand their meaning. While visiting the San Damiano monastery near Assisi, an image of the crucified Christ spoke to him, saying, “Francis, Francis, go and repair My church which, as you can see, is falling into ruins.” Believing the message was a cry for help from the monastery, Francis stole and sold silk from his father’s store and tried to give the money to the priest. The holy man refused to take the ill-gotten gains, leaving Francis feeling angry and confused.

Fearful of his father’s wrath, Francis hid in a cave for a month until his father discovered his whereabouts and dragged him home. Francis lived under lock and key until his mother freed him during his father’s absence. Francis immediately returned to San Damiano, seeking refuge from one of the priests. Although Francis’ father had regained the money Francis had stolen, he was not content to let his son stay in the monastery and made another attempt to bring him home. Bernardone threatened to disinherit his son, yet Francis got there first by formerly renouncing his father in front of the Bishop of Assisi. In some accounts, such as that depicted in a painting by il Sassetta (c.1392-1450), Francis stripped himself of his clothes as a symbol of his rejection, while the priest fought to cover the young man with his cloak to protect his modesty.

Rather than joining the church, Francis lived as a hermit or beggar in the hills surrounding Assisi. Eventually, he ventured to Gubbio in the northeast, seeking alms from a friend. Equipped with a cloak, girdle and staff, Francis returned to Assisi determined to help restore the church of San Damiano as God had instructed. Francis walked through the city begging for stones, which he used to build the new chapel. After its completion, he did the same for other ruined places of worship across the country, including San Pietro in the port city of Spina and a small chapel at St. Mary of the Angels near Assisi.

After completing the chapel at St. Mary of the Angels, Francis built a small hut from the remaining stones. Whilst residing there in February 1208, Francis studied the Gospel of Matthew and took inspiration from the Commissioning of the Twelve. Francis read that Jesus ordered his disciples to proclaim the Kingdom of God was at hand, which inspired him to devote himself to a life of poverty. Dressed in cheap, coarse wool, Francis began wandering the countryside, preaching about brotherly love.

By 1209, Francis had gained eleven followers, who joined him at a deserted leper colony near Assisi. Referring to them as friars, Francis developed the Regula primitiva (Primitive Rule) “to follow the teachings of our Lord Jesus Christ and to walk in his footsteps.” Together, the twelve men travelled to Rome to seek permission from Pope Innocent III (1161-1216) to form a religious order. On 16th April 1210, the Pope endorsed the Order of Friars Minor, later known as the Franciscan Order, and they set up their base in the chapel of St. Mary of the Angels.

The Franciscan Order grew, attracting both men and women. In 1211, the young noblewoman Clare of Assisi (1194-1253) sought Francis’ way of life, as did her cousin Rufino. To join them, Clare secretly left her family’s palace and found Francis in his chapel, who gave her a religious habit to wear and temporarily lodged her with a local group of Benedictine nuns. After constructing a handful of huts near San Damiano, Francis transferred Clare and a few other female followers, thus establishing the Order of Poor Clares. Some of his devotees who could not or would not take religious vows formed the Third Order of Brothers and Sisters of Penance, now known as the Secular Franciscan Order.

In 1212, Francis attempted to travel to Jerusalem to spread his Franciscan Order, but he never reached the city. After being shipwrecked, he returned to Italy and made plans to journey to Morocco. An unexpected illness put an end to his plans, so Francis remained in Italy, frequently using the mountain of La Verna as a prayer retreat. Eventually, Francis made his way to Egypt in 1219 to convert the Muslim Sultan of Egypt to Christianity. There are no reliable records of their meeting, but Franciscans have been present in the Holy Land ever since.

With Franciscans residing in different countries, Francis divided the Order into provinces, placing his most respected friars in charge. He re-established his Regula prima, emphasising the importance of apostolic life. Francis also created a second rule “to observe the Holy Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, living in obedience without anything of our own and in chastity.”

Francis continued to visit the mountain of La Verna to pray, including a forty-day fast in preparation for Michaelmas. While in prayer on 13th September 1224, Francis received a vision of a six-winged angel on a cross, who gave him the “gift of the five wounds of Christ”, also known as stigmata. From then on, Francis suffered pain and scars on his hands, wrists, and feet, corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of Jesus Christ. He also began to suffer from trachoma, an infection of the eyelids.

Despite care from many people and organisations, Francis’ condition did not improve. He spent his final days in a hut near St. Mary of the Angels and passed away on 3rd October 1226 while singing Psalm 141, Voce mea ad Dominum. Two years later, Pope Gregory IX (1145-1241) declared Francis a saint and ordered the construction of the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi. The Franciscans transferred Francis’ body to a tomb under the basilica, but he was later moved to a secret location as protection from Saracen invaders. The whereabouts of Francis’ body remained unknown until its discovery in 1818, after which it returned to the crypt of the basilica.

Many aspects of Saint Francis’ life are either unknown or unproven. Although there are several stories, only the above information is regarded as fact or at least close to the truth. Francis is said to have preached to the birds and supposedly persuaded a wolf to stop attacking people. These incidents are recorded in the Fioretti (Little Flowers), a collection of legends published after his death. One story quotes Saint Francis asking his companions to “wait for me while I go to preach to my sisters the birds.” The birds allegedly listened to him attentively and did not fly away until he had finished.

The incident with the wolf took place in the town of Gubbio, where Francis lived for a period. Many people lost their lives following an attack from a “terrifying and ferocious” wolf. Wishing to put an end to the torment, Francis sought out the wolf and, after making the sign of the cross, commanded the creature to follow him and hurt no one. Francis brought the wolf into the town and made a pact with the villagers that they would feed the wolf, and in return, the wolf would no longer prey on the people and their animals.

Due to these stories about animals, Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) declared Francis the patron saint of ecology. The Pope used Saint Francis as an example for Catholics to follow, instructing them “not to behave like dissident predators where nature is concerned, but to assume responsibility for it, taking all care so that everything stays healthy and integrated, so as to offer a welcoming and friendly environment even to those who succeed us.”

Aside from ecology, Saint Francis is the patron saint of animals, and many Catholics and other Christian denominations bring their pets to church on the feast day of Saint Francis (4th October) for a blessing. He is also the patron saint of dying alone, families, peace, needleworkers and several churches around the globe. In 1939, Pope Pius XII (1876-1958) named Francis a joint patron saint of Italy along with Catherine of Siena (1347-1380).

For centuries, the life of Saint Francis has been a popular topic for artists. Many well-known artists produced scenes of his life and ministry for religious establishments and patrons. Jan van Eyck (1390-1441), Giovanni Bellini (1413-1516), El Greco (1541-1614), and Caravaggio (1571-1610) are but a few of the famous painters inspired by Saint Francis. Contemporary artists continue to base their work on Francis’ visions and experiences, including Antony Gormley (b.1950) and Andrea Büttner (born 1972).

In other media, Saint Francis is the inspiration for literature and film, including The Flowers of St. Francis (1950), and Francesco (1989), starring Mickey Rourke (b.1952) as Francis and Helena Bonham Carter (b.1966) as Clare. Composers such as Franz Liszt (1811-1886) immortalised Saint Francis in music. Others composed music for hymns and prayers written by the saint. William Henry Draper (1855-1933), for instance, wrote All Creatures of Our God and King, which paraphrases Saint Francis’ Canticle of the Sun.

Regardless of people’s religious and cultural beliefs, there is a lot to learn from the life of Saint Francis. He embraced simplicity and humility, renouncing his wealth and material possessions to live among the poor. He taught that happiness is not found in commodities but in being content with what we have and who we are.

Saint Francis had compassion for all living beings, including animals and the natural environment. He treated every creature with kindness, even the wolf of Gubbio, who had already killed so many people. By practising empathy and compassion, Saint Francis believed humans could create a more harmonious and sustainable world, which remains particularly relevant today. He also found solace in nature, which helped him connect with God and the world around him.

In one of his prayers, Saint Francis’ says, “Where there is hatred, let me sow love; where there is injury, pardon; where there is doubt, faith; where there is despair, hope; where there is darkness, light; where there is sadness, joy.” By loving and forgiving others, Saint Francis believed he could heal wounds and bring about positive change. Whilst it is not possible to heal physical wounds with words, acts of love and kindness can do wonders for mental and emotional health.

Saint Francis dedicated his life to serving others, particularly the poor and marginalised. Some stories say he helped lepers, who most people avoided for fear of contagion. He believed in the dignity of every human being and did what he could to alleviate suffering. Many charities continue Saint Francis’ work by providing support for those in need. Any act of kindness, no matter how big or small, can make a positive impact on people’s lives and society.

For Christians, Saint Francis is an example of unwavering faith in God. Relying solely on God’s provision, Francis embraced a life of poverty. Even when faced with challenges and uncertainties, he still had faith in something greater than himself and trusted that God had given him strength and purpose.

From one remarkable man comes a lesson on love, compassion and unity through which humanity can strive to create a more harmonious, compassionate and sustainable world for future generations. It is gratifying to know that someone’s hardships and determination from 800 years ago are still relevant today.

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