Piet Mondrian

Piet Mondrian (1872-1944), one of the pioneers of abstract art, is known for his use of primary colours and simple geometric shapes. Whilst his work is highly recognisable, his philosophy that art should reflect the spiritual world is less known. Until 3rd September 2023, Tate Modern is exploring Mondrian’s life, work and philosophies alongside Hilma af Klint (1862-1944), a lesser-known female abstract artist.

Pieter Cornelis Mondriaan was born in Amersfoort, the Netherlands on 7th March 1872 to strict Protestant parents. His father, of the same name, worked as a head teacher but was also a qualified drawing teacher. Having been introduced to art at a young age, Mondrian entered the Academy for Fine Art in Amsterdam after qualifying as a primary school teacher. For some time, he managed to combine his career in education with his love of art, producing naturalistic and Impressionistic paintings in his spare time.

Most of Mondrian’s early works are landscapes featuring pastoral scenes. Influenced by his home country, Mondrian frequently painted windmills, rivers, fields and trees. Whilst these were representational works, Mondrian experimented with the many art movements of the late 19th century, including Impressionism, pointillism and Fauvism. By 1893, he had enough work to display at his first exhibition.

Mondrian’s early works begin to show a degree of abstraction as he started to experiment with different colour palettes, for instance, red, yellow and blue. The trees and other features gradually became less distinct, such as Gray Tree (1911), which Mondrian produced while staying in Paris. While living in France between 1911 and 1914, Mondrian changed his surname from Mondriaan to Mondrian and took inspiration from the Cubist artists Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) and Georges Braque (1882-1963). Although Gray Tree contains a measure of representation, the branches are more angular and geometric than in his previous work.

In 1908, Mondrian developed an interest in Helena Petrovna Blavatsky’s (1831-91) Theosophical Society, which believed it was possible to gain a spiritual knowledge of nature. Through his work, Mondrian determined to seek this knowledge. Mondrian and other artists, such as Hilma af Klint, sought to present spiritual concepts visually using abstract techniques and colours. Joining the Dutch branch of the Theosophical Society in 1909 had a greater impact on Mondrian’s aesthetic than the myriad of competing art movements.

While Mondrian was visiting his home country in 1914, the First World War began, forcing him to remain in the Netherlands for the next four years. During this time, he resided in the artists’ colony in Laren, where he met Bart van der Leck (1876-1958) and Theo van Doesburg (1883-1931). Although Mondrian had experimented with primary colours in the past, Van der Leck’s exclusive use of the colours red, blue and yellow had a profound impact on Mondrian’s artwork. Van Doesburg, whilst using a wider range of colours, encouraged Mondrian to continue developing his Cubist style.

Gradually, Mondrian’s work became less pictorial and moved away from Cubism. Together with Van Doesburg, Mondrian founded De Stijl (“The Style”), also known as Neoplasticism, in 1917, which advocated pure abstraction. Whilst Cubism is an abstract movement, De Stijl reduced visual compositions further to vertical and horizontal lines and shapes, using only black, white and primary colours.

Between 1917 and 1918, Mondrian published an essay called Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art in instalments in the new movement’s magazine, also called De Stijl. Mondrian believed traditional representation art only focused on the external world, whereas geometric abstraction created a sense of balance and harmony to emphasise the internal qualities of the universe. Mondrian also maintained that the fundamental principles of the universe could be demonstrated in grid-like compositions.

After the First World War, Mondrian returned to Paris, where he remained for two decades. Here, he fully embraced “pure abstract art” and produced some of his most iconic artworks. Mondrian began by painting grid-like compositions consisting of thin black lines forming rectangles, which he filled with blue, red, yellow, grey or white paint. Over time, the black lines increased in thickness, and the number of geometric shapes reduced.

Although digital and photographic versions of Mondrian’s paintings appear flat, that is not the reality. The black lines are the flattest parts of the compositions, whereas the coloured sections are built up from many layers of paint. Close examination reveals Mondrian only moved the paintbrush in one direction when applying red, blue or yellow, but the white sections have brush strokes running in several different directions.

“Holland has produced three great painters who, though a logical expression of their own country, rose above it through the vigour of their personality – the first was Rembrandt, the second was Van Gogh, and the third is Mondrian.” So said Katherine Dreier (1877-1952), a founder of New York City’s Society of Independent Artists, after visiting Mondrian’s studio in Paris. Dreier purchased one of Mondrian’s paintings and exhibited it in the United States at the end of the 1920s.

During the 1930s, Mondrian significantly reduced the amount of colour in his compositions. He began to focus on the impact of lines, frequently doubling them up to create a new dynamism. These paintings are visually busier than his earlier grid-style canvases.

Due to the rise of Fascism, Mondrian left France for London in 1938, where he resided for two years. After Paris fell to the Nazis in 1940, Mondrian left Europe altogether, settling in Manhattan, New York. Mondrian continued to produce grid-like compositions, which, despite their simplicity, took hours to execute.

Moving to America brought about a significant change in Mondrian’s work. Rather than using black lines and blocks of colour, Mondrian began using red, yellow and blue lines instead. New York City (1942) is one example of Mondrian’s new style. The lines towards the top of the painting are denser than at the bottom, which some critics suggest represents the sky.

Using strips of tape, Mondrian experimented with the position of the lines before painting directly on the canvas. The technique is evident in the unfinished painting New York City I, which has some similarities to the completed New York City. The unfinished work hangs in the Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen in Düsseldorf, Germany. Last year, an unearthed photograph of the painting in Mondrian’s studio proved the artwork had been hung upside down in the gallery.

The grid-like cityscape in Manhattan inspired many of Mondrian’s artworks during the years he spent in America. He also took inspiration from the people in the city, particularly the jazz scene. Broadway Boogie Woogie (1943) incorporates rigid architecture and jazz tones by dividing the composition into more squares than previous works. Mondrian replaced solid lines with small adjoining rectangles of colour. Some critics suggest Mondrian captured the neon lights that dotted the city during the night.

“Mondrian’s life and his affection for music are mirrored in the painting [and that it is] a testimony of the influence which New York had on Mondrian.” So said Jürgen Stoye about the unfinished artwork Victory Boogie Woogie. Whilst some lines and shapes are complete, pieces of coloured paper indicate where Mondrian intended to paint. Stoye believed the music scene of New York began to influence Mondrian more than the grid-like architecture. Mondrian’s decision to rotate the canvas by 45 degrees may support this theory.

Despite Mondrian’s reputation for abstract art, he had a secret passion for painting flowers. He began producing floral images early in his career before branching out into Cubism and De Stijl, yet, Roses in a Vase (1938-1940) proves Mondrian continued to work on these subjects in private. Mondrian claimed to his close friends that he only painted flowers for commercial reasons, but the truth of this claim remains uncertain.

Piet Mondrian passed away on 1st February 1944 from pneumonia at the age of 71. Nearly 200 people attended his memorial service in Manhattan, including the artists Marc Chagall (1887-1985) and Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968). Mondrian left his estate, including the copyright to all his works, to his friend Henry Holtzman (1912-87), who had arranged Mondrian’s passage from London to New York in 1940. When Holtzman passed away in 1987, his children established the Mondrian/Holtzman trust to look after the paintings until the copyrights expired in 2015.

As an artist, Mondrian has inspired and continues to inspire many people. Art critic Robert Hughes (1938-2012) described Mondrian as “one of the supreme artists of the 20th century” who “believed that the conditions of human life could be changed by making pictures”. With such a distinctive and recognisable style, Mondrian’s work was quickly appropriated by other artists, particularly fashion designers. Before his death, Hermès designed a range of bags based on Mondrian’s latest paintings. Three decades later, Yves Saint Laurent released the 1965 Mondrian collection, featuring Mondrian’s iconic black lines and blocks of primary colours.

In 2008, the athletic footwear company Nike released a pair of trainers based on Mondrian’s De Stijl paintings. Since the copyright on Mondrian’s work expired in 2015, the amount of Mondrian-inspired fashion has risen considerably. A quick search on Google finds dresses and shirts on sale at Shein, Etsy, and ASOS. Dutch companies, such as the Miffy Shop, based on illustrations by Dick Bruna (1927-2017), have also embraced Mondrian’s style.

Modern art is subjective and open to interpretation. Some people may not appreciate Mondrian’s unique style or understand his work, but it does not diminish the fact that it has had a huge impact on the art world. Designers have put Mondrian’s pleasing patterns to good use, incorporating them into fashion and graphic design. Yet, beneath the layers of paint is an artist attempting to create a sense of balance and harmony in a world full of war, hate and fear.

To view some of Piet Mondrian’s paintings and notebooks in conjunction with Hilma af Klint, visit the Forms of Life exhibition at Tate Britain. Tickets are available until 3rd September 2023 and cost £20. Some concessions are available.

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The Pioneer of Abstract Art

Tate Modern is currently exploring the works of two groundbreaking artists, Piet Mondrian (1872-1944) and Hilma af Klint (1862-1944). The exhibition, subtitled Forms of Life, which runs until 3rd September 2023, displays the works of two artists who never met yet inspired each other. Mondrian is the better-known of the two artists. Even those who do not know his name will recognise his iconic abstract paintings of blue, yellow and red rectangles. The works of the lesser-known Swedish painter af Klint will be a brand-new experience for many since the art world is only recently uncovering the forgotten female artists of the past.

Hilma af Klint and Piet Mondrian were two of the first abstract artists of the Western world. Af Klint’s paintings differed slightly from other artists of this genre because she used complex spiritual ideas as inspiration for her work. Af Klint was both an artist and a mystic who followed Theosophy and aimed to make contact with the “Masters of the Ancient Wisdom”, also known as mahatmas and the Elder Brothers of the Human Race.

Born on 26th October 1862, af Klint was the fourth child of Captain Victor af Klint, a naval officer, and Mathilda née Sonntag. The summers the family spent at their manor Hanmora on the island of Adelsö inspired af Klint’s love of art and spirituality. Initially, her father tried to instil a passion for mathematics and botany, but after the family moved to Stockholm, af Klint enrolled at the University of Arts, Crafts and Design to study portraiture and landscape painting.

At age 20, af Klint joined the Royal Academy of Fine Arts and continued to study portraiture and landscape painting until 1887 when she graduated with honours. After setting up her studio in Stockholm, af Klint’s reputation grew, and she produced numerous landscapes, botanical drawings and portraits throughout her career. Yet, Tate Modern focuses more on the work Klint created behind closed doors, which differs greatly from her commercial artwork.

Af Klint’s fascination with the spiritual dimension began in 1880 following the death of her younger sister Hermina. She became interested in the Theosophy of Madame Blavatsky and the philosophy of Christian Rosencreutz. The latter was a potentially fictional Christian pilgrim who travelled to the Holy Land, where he developed ideas that bordered on the occult. Rudolf Steiner, the founder of the Anthroposophical Society who had a particular interest in Rosencreutz, visited Stockholm in 1908 and introduced af Klint to some of his theories. These, in turn, inspired af Klint’s art.

Modernist artists at the turn of the century searched for new art forms through which they could depict spiritual beliefs, politics and new scientific systems. Many of these artists, including Piet Mondrian, took inspiration from the Theosophical Movement. Members described themselves as “an unsectarian body of seekers after Truth, who endeavour to promote Brotherhood and strive to serve humanity.” Af Klint used theosophical beliefs as inspiration for abstract art, but she felt the world was not ready for such a groundbreaking genre and kept her work secret.

While studying at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, af Klint met the Swedish artist Anna Cassel (1860-1937), who introduced her to three spiritualist women, Cornelia Cederberg (1854-1933), Sigrid Hedman (1855-1922) and Mathilda Nilsson (1844-1923). As a group, they joined the Edelweiss Society, which embraced the teachings of Blavatsky. In 1896, the five women formed an independent group, Dem Fem (The Five), which focused on the paranormal.

At the beginning of each meeting, Dem Fem began with a prayer, meditation, a Christian sermon and a reading from the New Testament. They followed this with a séance, the results of which they recorded in a book. It appeared they were contacting or trying to contact higher spirits or High Masters. These sessions inspired af Klint’s artwork, leading her to experiment with geometric forms to capture the unknown spiritual forces in the world.

“The pictures were painted directly through me, without any preliminary drawings, and with great force. I had no idea what the paintings were supposed to depict; nevertheless, I worked swiftly and surely, without changing a single brush stroke.” – Hilma af Klint

Af Klint began her first series of abstract paintings in 1906. The series totalled 193 artworks in all, which af Klint divided into sub-groups. Ten large canvases, aptly named The Ten Largest, demonstrate the different phases of life from birth to death. When Rudolf Steiner saw the series in 1908, he was unimpressed, stating that painting was inappropriate for a theosophist and that Blavatsky had claimed using any form of a medium was faulty practice, leading to black magic and the occult. Steiner seemed to disregard the outlines for visual artists written by Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater, who took over from Blavatsky following her death in 1891:

The forms of thoughts are determined by three principles: 1. Quality of thought determines colour. 2. Nature of thought determines form. 3. Definiteness of thought determines clearness of outline.

Naturally, af Klint felt devastated after Steiner rejected her art, but it did not stop her painting. She continued to depict symbolic elements in her work, often representing symmetrical dualities. One series, The Swan, illustrates love and nature. Although they do not resemble a swan, the colours represent various aspects; for instance, the female spirit is blue, and the male is yellow. Pinks and reds stand for physical and spiritual love.

Spirals and circles frequently appeared in af Klint’s work. They usually represent growth, progress or evolution, while other shapes signify ideas or elements of nature. Af Klint dreamt of building a temple in the shape of a spiral where her paintings could be hung in a long, continuous line, demonstrating the human spirit moving towards a higher state.

Although af Klint focused mainly on theosophical, spiritual beliefs, she also incorporated Christian elements into some of her work. Between 1913 and 1915, af Klint produced a series called Tree of Knowledge, which references the Christian narrative of the beginning of the world. The watercolour paintings look like detailed diagrams that break down a three-dimensional planet into two-dimensional planes.

The Tree of Knowledge appears in many cultures and religions, although in different contexts. In some traditions, the tree connects every part of the universe. In Norse mythology, for example, Yggdrasil is a tree at the centre of the cosmos, connecting the heavens with Earth.

Af Klint used a variety of shapes, including botanical-like images, which implies she took influence from the Art Nouveau movement that was prevalent at the time. Her later works lost these details and became simplified geometric compositions.

Although spiritual life drove much of af Klint’s abstract art, she also remained connected to physical life. In the early 1800s, the English physicist John Dalton (1766-1844) introduced the concept of atomic theory, which maintained that all matter is composed of particles called atoms. Over the following century, scientists gained a deeper understanding of atoms, which intrigued af Klint and influenced her paintings.

In 1920, af Klint combined Theosophy with atomic theory to produce a series of black-and-white circles. From a scientific perspective, the paintings resemble diagrams of atoms, but af Klint was also exploring the nature of different world religions. The exact meanings of af Klint’s black and white shades are unknown but may relate to the Chinese philosophy of Yin and Yang, in which Yin is negative, dark, and feminine, and Yang is positive, bright, and masculine. In theory, the interaction of Yin and Yang maintains the harmony of the universe and influences everything within it. Each of the religions portrayed by af Klint has a different combination of black and white, suggesting all religions are made up of the same basic concepts but are utilised differently.

During her career, af Klint filled over 150 notebooks of thoughts and studies. Whilst some of her notes and sketches inspired artwork, her books show how af Klint processed the information she learnt about the world. Since childhood, af Klint held an interest in botany and particularly enjoyed studying Carl Linnaeus’ Systema Naturae, which formalised the naming of living organisms. Af Klint also took inspiration from the illustrations of plants produced by European colonisers. Some of her earlier works incorporated the organic curves and sinuous lines of these drawings, which also inspired Art Nouveau.

In one notebook, af Klint produced an index of flowers, mosses and lichens. Rather than draw accurate diagrams, af Klint used a mix of text and illustration to connect the natural world to her spiritual system. She used symbols, circles and colours to demonstrate the connection between organic entities with character traits and emotions. The plants she included were indigenous to Sweden, including dog rose and water iris.

Despite Rudolf Steiner’s earlier rejection of af Klint’s work, Steiner kept some photographs of af Klint’s work, which he allegedly showed Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944), inspiring the Russian artist to embrace abstract art. Later in af Klint’s career, Steiner gave her advice about her artwork, encouraging af Klint to develop a “wet on wet” technique. This method allowed watercolour paint to bleed together, thus representing Steiner’s belief that plants participate in a spirit that permeates all of nature.

Although af Klint never officially exhibited her abstract paintings, new evidence suggests she attempted to display them at The Anthroposophical Society. Whilst this was unsuccessful, her work was featured at the 1928 World Conference on Spiritual Science in London. Other than this, only close friends viewed her artwork until the 1960s.

On 21st October 1944, five days before her 82nd birthday, Hilma af Klint died in a traffic accident in Djursholm, Sweden. She bequeathed her collection of over 1,200 paintings and 150 notebooks to her nephew, Vice Admiral Erik af Klint (1901-81), with the instructions that they should be kept secret for at least 20 years after her death. Af Klint’s latest known artwork was allegedly painted in 1932. Ominously, it portrays a map of Europe blowing flames toward England. It has since been titled The Blitz and has been used to cement claims that af Klint was clairvoyant and able to converse with the spirit world to predict events of the Second World War. Or, perhaps, the painting was misdated.

As per her dying wishes, af Klint’s art remained locked away until the 1960s. Her nephew offered the paintings as a gift to the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, but they declined. Unable to get rid of the artwork, most likely because no one knew of Hilma af Klint, Erik af Klint established the Hilma af Klint Foundation. With the help of art historian Åke Fant (1943-97), af Klint’s work was presented at a Nordik conference in Helsinki in 1984. Gradually, the art world learnt her name, and Hilma af Klint became one of Sweden’s most esteemed artists. Finally, in 2018, the Moderna Museet agreed to display af Klint’s paintings in a specially-built gallery, where they remain today.

To view some of Hilma af Klint’s paintings and notebooks in conjunction with Piet Mondrian before they return to Sweden, visit the Forms of Life exhibition at Tate Modern. Tickets are available until 3rd September 2023 and cost £20. Some concessions are available.

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